Art in the space between
Estonian artists in exile between homeland, loss and new beginnings
Between everyday life in the camp and artistic awakening: after fleeing their homeland in 1944, Estonian artists sought ways to preserve their culture in Germany – and created art that balanced tradition, trauma and tentative attempts at a new modernism.
The late summer and autumn of 1944 marked a turning point in the history of and the entire Baltic region, and the beginning of refugee culture. In fear of imminent occupation, approximately 80,000 people, including a major portion of the Estonian cultural elite and those active in the local political scene, fled Estonia and travelled West (mainly to Germany and Sweden), not knowing when they would be able to return home, if ever. The refugee crisis that took place in Europe during the Second World War in Europe was not dissimilar to that of today – both can be seen as a response to the prevailing political situation and war.
Estonia
deu. Estland, eng. Republic of Estonia, est. Eesti Vabariik, est. Eesti, deu. Republik Estland
Estonia is a country in north-eastern Europe. It is inhabited by around 1.3 million people and borders Latvia, Russia and the Baltic Sea. The most populous city and capital is Tallinn.
Today's Estonian state only regained its political independence in 1991 as a result of the so-called “Singing Revolution” in the Baltic states and in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union. Estonian independence was first proclaimed in 1918 and achieved through the “Estonian War of Independence” (1918-1920). As early as 1940, this first Estonian state was replaced by the “Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic”, which was founded under Soviet occupation. With an interruption due to the German occupation during the Second World War (1941-1944) and with slightly different borders, it was a constituent republic of the Soviet Union until 1991. Before 1918, the territory of present-day Estonia was part of the Russian Empire, with its northern part forming the Baltic Governorate of Estonia and its southern part the northern half of the Baltic Governorate of Livonia. In the High and Late Middle Ages and at the beginning of the early modern period, parts of today's country were also under Swedish, Danish and Polish rule, while the Livonian part was also under the sovereignty of the Teutonic Order until 1561.
Estonia has been part of the European Union and NATO since 2004.
Soviet Union
deu. Union der Sozialistischen Sowjetrepubliken, deu. Sowjetunion, rus. Sovetskiy Soyuz, rus. Советский Союз, . Совет Ушем, . Советонь Соткс, rus. Sovetskij Soûz, . Советий Союз, yid. ראַטן־פֿאַרבאַנד, yid. סאוועטן פארבאנד, yid. sovətn farband, yid. sovʿtn-farband, yid. sovətn-farband, . Советтер Союзу, . Совет Союзы, . Советон Цæдис, . Совет Эвилели
The Soviet Union (SU or USSR) was a state in Eastern Europe, Central and Northern Asia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It emerged from the so-called Soviet Russia, the successor state of the Russian Empire. The Russian Soviet Republic formed the core of the union and at the same time its largest part, with further constituent republics added. Their number varied over time and was related to the occupation of other countries (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Soviet republics that existed only for a short time (Karelo-Finlandia) or the division or merger of Soviet republics. In addition, there were numerous autonomous republics or other territorial units with an autonomy status that was essentially limited to linguistic autonomy for minorities.
Before its formal dissolution, the USSR consisted of 15 Soviet republics with a population of approximately 290 million people. At around 22.4 million km², it was the largest territorial state in the world at the time. The Soviet Union was a socialist soviet republic with a one-party system and an absence of separation of powers.
This article covers the period between 1945 and 1950 and focuses on refugee camps in Germany in the US Zone1, where approximately 50 visual artists from Estonia lived. Some were already established artists in their homeland; others were younger artists or were just starting their careers as artists in exile. Their artistic life in the first five years of exile in post-war Germany, after it had been liberated from the National Socialists, was extremely lively – many exhibitions were organized, the
Estonian Visual Artists' Centre
Estonian Visual Artists' Centre
A center for visual artists, founded in 1946 during the early years of exile. Its main tasks were to support the work and exhibition production of Estonian refugee artists in Germany.
was created, and courses in art education were offered. In addition, art criticism and art-related writings were published in the newspapers and magazines founded in the camps. Vital and vigorous activity took place in the DP camps despite difficult circumstances such as a lack of materials, meagre living conditions and the absence of a homeland and traditional support structures.
In my research I examined refugee art, paying particular attention to the specific conditions of exile. In other words, I attempted to establish connections between the tragedy of being forced to flee, the loss of home, the political situation after the war, life in a foreign environment, and the creation of art. In addition, it was important to me to consider the concept of collective exile, which, in contrast to individual exile, enabled refugees to continue their former lives in a certain form and to organize themselves as a unique cultural and national group. These special circumstances stimulated the creation of art and fostered an active art scene in exile. To understand them, I present below four possible narratives that emerged in the art of Estonian refugee artists between 1945 and 1950.
Narrative 1: Collective Nationhood
The large number of émigré Estonian professionals allowed various cultural areas, including the visual arts, to be brought to life in exile. Rapid initiatives meant that the cultural activity that had previously existed in the homeland could resume on a fairly large scale, helping to create a strong sense of community. A kind of cultural autonomy consequently developed among the Estonians in these camps (especially in the city of Geislingen), based on the idea that the culture of the lost homeland had to be maintained and vigorously upheld in the free world because this was no longer possible in occupied Estonia.
Thus the reconstruction of their former life became the primary goal of the refugee community, and it gradually developed into a national mission. This can be understood from a socio-psychological point of view because the trauma associated with their escape and the loss of homeland had left a mark on their collective identity; one way to cope with the events of the past and alleviate the trauma was to recreate a familiar cultural environment, a strong sense of community and a unified struggle against a difficult political situation. The Estonian refugees therefore sought to define themselves primarily as Estonian nationals, based on a collective loyalty to tradition and a shared nationhood. It also meant relying on the past, which was a safe environment. Nationhood manifested itself intensively in the first years of exile because the revival of cultural expressions reinforced the possibility of national self-preservation, while also surrounding the younger generation with a national environment.
Furthermore, organizing art exhibitions also served the national and political goals of the refugee community. The artists sought to present the history and cultural achievements of Estonians through art. This was especially important at large ethnographic exhibitions, which had to present a broad cultural picture of Estonia and introduce the development of Estonian culture. In addition, joint exhibitions held with refugees of other nationalities had a similar purpose: these were the focus of significant political attention and were frequently visited by the Western Allied authorities, so each nationality had to represent their homeland and current situation.
These visits became particularly important, since they allowed the Allies to familiarize themselves with the refugee crisis and the conditions of the occupied homeland. It was hoped that with the help of the Western Allies, it would be possible to improve the conditions of the refugees in the camps and contribute to the resolution of the politically difficult situation at home. Art exhibitions can be seen as a cultural and political tool used by the refugee community as it attempted to communicate the post-war political situation to the wider world while at the same time introducing Estonian culture.
However, nationhood represented a kind of closed system where cultural creation had to deal either directly or indirectly with national identity or self-definition. The collective national activity of the artistic community was considered more important than the success or development of the individual artist. In the case of visual art, nationhood was primarily expressed using themes connected to the homeland, for example, motifs based on famous Estonian buildings, historical events, people and landscapes. This limited the creativity of the artists and hindered the emergence of new themes and styles in Estonian refugee art.
Narrative 2: Surrounding Environment
After national motifs, the second major theme was the documentation of the new environment as a source of inspiration. Such politically neutral art provided artists with some necessary distance from ideological issues and reflected the preferences of the local German audience, which favored non-Estonian art. The works of refugee artists included paintings and drawings of German nature (rivers, lakes, landscapes, mountains) and views of different German cities (Augsburg, Dresden, Geislingen, and Tübingen). Often the main motif in cityscapes was the church and its surroundings. Apart from the cities, the artists captured all kinds of views of the countryside: autumn and winter landscapes, rivers and lakes, park views and meadows, etc. Germany differed from Estonia topographically, since it featured high mountains and sweeping valleys, and these were a source of inspiration for many landscape paintings.
Narrative 3: Trauma and Flight
The direct impact of exile can also be seen in the emergence of a trauma narrative in the artists' work. In the works of a few artists, many paintings and drawings depict the tragic escape and the harsh life of the refugees. For example, their art records the painful memories of fleeing their homes during the war and escaping from Estonia to Germany, as well the miserable everyday life in DP camps, characterized by a fear for and ignorance about the future. Most were graphic works or charcoal drawings that allowed the artists to convey expressions and create a tragic mood with the use of light and dark. This narrative, although emotionally powerful, was only seen in the works of a few artists and was more present in the first years of exile.
Narrative 4: Influences from Modernism
Art born in exile is often characterized by a contradictory relationship; exile is a traumatic experience, but living and working in a new environment can also have a positive effect on the artist's work and personal development. Regarding the art of refugee Estonians, there was also an expectation that living in Western Europe would give them access to international modern art, which would allow new styles and themes to emerge in Estonian art. Living in Germany could provide Estonian artists with direct contact with the art that had been banned by the National Socialists – so-called
“Entartete Kunst”
Degenerate art
Degenerate art was a derogatory term coined in the 1930s by the Nazi regime in Germany. The term “degenerate” mainly referred to all German modern art, but works by internationally renowned modern artists were also classified as degenerate. Individuals identified as degenerate artists were dismissed from their teaching positions, prohibited from exhibiting or selling their artwork, and in some cases, prohibited from creating art altogether.
or “degenerate art”. A few refugee artists voiced their hope that visiting large exhibitions, such as "Der Blaue Reiter", "Bauhaus", "French Impressionists", "Georges Braque", and "Modern French Art” would influence Estonian artists and help them to find their way onto the international art scene.In reality, the opposite was usually true. Adherence to traditions and familiar themes meant that influences from the host country, such as Western European modernism, remained within narrow limits. Few artists considered the modernization of Estonian art as important as Endel Kõks, Juhan Hennoste and Eduard Rüga. The biggest obstacle to the emergence of modernist developments proved to be the prevailing mood of national nostalgia, which called for Estonian culture to be revived, preserved and made better known in exile. The concern was that new directions would distance artists in exile too far from the art of their homeland in terms of form and content. In a letter to Kõks, Eduard Rüga confessed that other artists did not share their interest in modern art and that the majority of the refugee audience also preferred patriotic art. Motifs from their homeland seemed to serve as a substitute for the physically distant Estonia, which is why modern art did not really develop any relevance for the refugee community.
Epilogue
In the final years of exile in Germany, the continuation of a nationally-oriented artistic stance was viewed with mounting criticism within the Estonian community. Some artists began to question the idea of a nationally isolated culture, warning that it could lead to artistic stagnation. At the same time, there was a growing realization that the Soviet occupation of their homeland would probably last longer than they had initially hoped. Many therefore began to distance themselves from national motifs and to focus their thoughts on the possibility of further migration.
Estonian artists initially assumed that exile was a temporary state – an interim period until they could secure a speedy return. But history taught them otherwise: Soviet rule in Estonia was to last for almost half a century, and it was only with the restoration of independence that they would have the possibility of returning home.
