The “Glory” of Liberation

Sexual violence perpetrated by the Red Army in Slovakia at the end of World War II
,
„Bratislava verabschiedet sich von der Roten Armee“: Jubelbilder von der Befreiung Bratislavas beim Abzug der Roten Armee, am 22. November 1945 aufgenommen
Photo credit:
“Bratislava says goodbye to the Red Army”: The celebratory pictures from the liberation of Bratislava were actually taken during the departure of the Red Army on 22 November 1945. Sign. IX.D-43, „Bratislava sa rozlúčila s Červenou armádou“ / Vojenský historický archív – Vojenský historický ústav, Free access - no reuse
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The genuine joy at the liberation by the Red Army from the German occupying forces in Slovakia, with cheering crowds lining the streets and women offering food, alcoholic beverages and flowers, coexisted alongside the Red Army’s criminal behaviour, which included sexual violence.

On the margins of history

During the final battles of the Second World War, Allied soldiers committed mass sexual violence. Estimating the number of individuals affected by sexual violence at the end of the war has proved to be extremely difficult. In Germany alone, researchers report widely varying figures, estimating that at least hundreds of thousands and up to two million women were raped by British, French, Soviet, and US troops.1 While soldiers of all allied armies engaged in such acts, both public and scholarly focus has predominantly been on the Red Army. This is due to factors such as the size of the Army and its widespread presence across Europe at the end of the war, but also the legacy of Nazi propaganda that used dehumanizing stereotypes such as the “hordes of Mongolian savages,” and the Cold War rhetoric that emphasized Soviet crimes while downplaying those of the Western Allies.2 
Die Befreiung der Tschechoslowakei wird weiterhin idyllisch geschildert
Die Befreiung der Tschechoslowakei wird weiterhin idyllisch geschildert
The liberation of Czechoslovakia continued to be idyllically portrayed. Sign. O 4573, Ivan Šimko – Oslobodenie, 1972 / Slovenská národná galéria (SNG), Free access - no reuse
The liberation of Czechoslovakia continued to be idyllically portrayed. Sign. O 4573, Ivan Šimko – Oslobodenie, 1972 / Slovenská národná galéria (SNG), Free access - no reuse
Furthermore, when Soviet troops entered countries that had collaborated with Nazi Germany, like 
Hungary
hun. Magyarország, deu. Ungarn

Hungary is a country in Central Europe, whose capital is Budapest. The country is home to about 10 million people and was part of the so-called Habsburg Empire for several centuries. Hungary has been a member of the European Union since 01.05.2004. The Danube is the largest river in the country.

Ungarn in the Online Encyclopedia of the Culture and History of the Germans in Eastern Europe (German)
Ungarn at Google Maps
 or 
Austria
deu. Österreich, eng. Republic of Austria, deu. Republik Österreich, slv. Avstrija, slv. Republika Avstrija, hrv. Republika Austrija, hrv. Austrija, hun. Ausztria, hun. Osztrák Köztársaság

Austria is a country in Central Europe populated by about 8.9 million people. The capital of the country is Vienna.

Österreich in the Online Encyclopedia of the Culture and History of the Germans in Eastern Europe (German)
Österreich at Google Maps
, many sought revenge for the atrocities committed by Nazi troops that they had witnessed; driven by years of front-line brutality, they also lacked resources for sexual barter (unlike the US troops), and were frequently suffering from alcohol abuse and peer pressure while being able to act with impunity.3
Unlike Germany, 
Slovakia
slk. Slovensko, deu. Slowakei

Slovakia is a country in Central Europe, which is lived in by about 5.5 million people. The capital of the country is Bratislava (Pressburg). Slovakia has been independent since 1993.

Slowakei in the Online Encyclopedia of the Culture and History of the Germans in Eastern Europe (German)
Slowakei at Google Maps
 was not perceived as enemy territory by the Red Army – although Slovakia had been a satellite state of the National Socialists after the division of 
OpenStreetMap, Open Database License (ODbL)
Czechoslovakia
ces. Československo, deu. Tschechoslowakei, slk. Česko-Slovensko, eng. Czecho-Slovakia

Czechoslovakia was a state existing between 1918 and 1992 with changing borders and under changing names and political systems, the former parts of which were absorbed into the present-day states of the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Ukraine (Carpathian Ukraine, already occupied by Hungary in 1939, from 1945 to the Soviet Union). After 1945, Czechoslovakia was under the political influence of the Soviet Union, was part of the so-called Eastern Bloc as a satellite state, and from 1955 was a member of the Warsaw Pact. Between 1960 and 1990, the communist country's official name was Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (abbreviated ČSSR). The democratic political change was initiated in 1989 with the Velvet Revolution and resulted in the establishment of the independent Czech and Slovak republics in 1992.

Tschechoslowakei in the Online Encyclopedia of the Culture and History of the Germans in Eastern Europe (German)
Tschechoslowakei at Google Maps
 under the Munich Agreement in 1938. Following its suppression of the  Slovak National Uprising
Slovak National Uprising
 The Slovak National Uprising was the military uprising against the regime of the Slovak state, and its ally Nazi Germany, which started on 29 August 1944, organized by the Slovak resistance movement and mainly represented by members of the Democratic Party, social democrats and communists. The uprising received support from the Allied powers, particularly the Soviet Union, the US, and the United Kingdom. In addition, thirty-three nations and nationalities in total were involved in the fighting. At the beginning of the uprising, the insurgents controlled over half of Slovak territory, but quickly lost ground as a result of the advance of Nazi Germany, which officially supressed the Uprising on 28 October 1944. The insurgents switched to pure partisan fighting, continuing until the end of the war in Slovakia in April 1945. As a consequence, the German occupation regime committed war crimes, murdering civilians, and continued the extermination of the Jews in Slovakia, which resulted in the deportation or murder of more than 14,000 Jews. A total of about 30,000 Slovak citizens were deported to German prison, labour, internment and concentration camps.  in late August 1944, Nazi Germany occupied Slovakia; this was completed by October 1944. The uprising was put down brutally and the occupation marked the start of a dangerous period for local citizens; the territory of Slovakia began to be liberated only in early 1945.
„Ein weiterer Schlag gegen den Faschismus“ – ein antifaschistisches Plakat zum Gedenken an den Slowakischen Nationalaufstand, der als entscheidend für den Sieg über das Regime des slowakischen Staates und über Nazideutschland angesehen wird
„Ein weiterer Schlag gegen den Faschismus“ – ein antifaschistisches Plakat zum Gedenken an den Slowakischen Nationalaufstand, der als entscheidend für den Sieg über das Regime des slowakischen Staates und über Nazideutschland angesehen wird
“Another blow to fascism” – an anti-fascist poster commemorating the Slovak National Uprising, which had been considered essential for defeating the regime of the Slovak state as well as Nazi Germany. Sign. K 16597, Imrich Vysočan: Ďalší úder fašizmu, 1954 / Slovenská národná galéria (SNG), Free access - no reuse
“Another blow to fascism” – an anti-fascist poster commemorating the Slovak National Uprising, which had been considered essential for defeating the regime of the Slovak state as well as Nazi Germany. Sign. K 16597, Imrich Vysočan: Ďalší úder fašizmu, 1954 / Slovenská národná galéria (SNG), Free access - no reuse
Slovakia was considered an ally, thus women were not considered legitimate targets of violence as part of an ethos of retribution; instead the local population was seen as sympathetic to the Allied cause.4 However, Soviet soldiers did not always respect political agreements or pay much attention to international politics. Women from allied countries or those who had survived Nazi concentration camps were not excluded from the sexual violence perpetrated by some members of the Soviet troops.5 This was also the case in Slovakia, despite the narrative of Slavic brotherly liberation6 promoted to solidify ties between the Soviet Union and future socialist republics (such as 
Polish People’s Republic
deu. Volksrepublik Polen, pol. Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa, deu. Republik Polen, eng. Polish Republic, pol. Rzeczpospolita Polska

The People's Republic of Poland was a socialist state in the Soviet sphere of influence that existed from 1944 to 1989 (until 1952 as the Republic of Poland). Its borders correspond to those of present-day Poland. The formal legitimization of the political system was based on the referendum of 1946 and the election of 1947, while the results of both were falsified. The parties of the so-called Democratic Bloc were forcibly united in 1948 in the Socialist Unity Party of the One-Party State, the communist Polish United Workers' Party (Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza, PZPR), which ruled until the end of the People's Republic.

Volksrepublik Polen in the Online Encyclopedia of the Culture and History of the Germans in Eastern Europe (German)
Volksrepublik Polen at Google Maps
, 
People's Republic of Bulgaria
bul. Народна република България, deu. Volksrepublik Bulgarien

The People's Republic of Bulgaria was a socialist state in south-eastern Europe that existed from 1946 to 1990. At the beginning of the Second World War, Bulgaria tried to maintain political neutrality, but was occupied by German troops in 1941 and pressured by Nazi Germany to join the war on the side of the Axis powers. In 1944, the Soviet Union occupied Bulgaria. On October 9, 1944, the communist forces led by Kimon Georgiev staged a coup coordinated with the Soviet Union.

The People's Republic was finally proclaimed in 1946. The first few years were characterized by political purges and the restructuring of the national economy. Progressive industrialization initially brought success, especially as Bulgaria was able to purchase raw materials at reduced prices from the USSR, which was also by far its largest market, and receive cheap loans and financial aid. This close dependence on the USSR led to a profound crisis in the 1980s. One attempt to divert attention from this was the repressive measures introduced against the Muslim and Turkish minorities as part of the so-called National Revival, which led to the emigration of around 300,000 people to Turkey shortly before the People's Republic dissolved. In 1990, free elections were held for the first time, as a result of which a democratic constitution was developed.

 or 
Yugoslavia
srp. Југославија, hrv. Jugoslavija, deu. Jugoslawien, slv. Jugoslavija, sqi. Jugosllavia

Yugoslavia was a southeastern European state that existed, with interruptions and in slightly changing borders, from 1918 to 1992 and 2003, respectively. The capital and largest city of the country was Belgrade. Historically, a distinction is made in particular between the period of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia from 1918 to 1941 (also called 'First Yugoslavia') and communist Yugoslavia from 1945 (the so-called 'Second Yugoslavia') under the dictatorial ruling head of state Josip Broz Tito (1892-1980). The disintegration of Yugoslavia from 1991 and the independence aspirations of several parts of the country eventually led to the Yugoslav Wars (also called the Balkan Wars or post-Yugoslav Wars). Today, the successor states of Yugoslavia are Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Kosovo and Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Jugoslawien in the Online Encyclopedia of the Culture and History of the Germans in Eastern Europe (German)
).7
Determining the extent of sexual violence perpetrated by the Soviet Army following the end of the war is challenging due to factors such as the scarcity of reliable sources, the social stigma that silenced many victims, the political agendas shaping historical narratives, and the destruction or suppression of existing records. However, even  sources that are often poorly analysed, such as police investigations,8 regional reports,9 demographic statistics10 and women’s accounts11 point to a high level of sexual violence by Red Army soldiers, which meant the Czechoslovak and Slovak authorities had to face thousands of rape survivors and deal with innumerable cases of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), unwanted pregnancies, abortions, infanticides, and children born of rape.12 This text explores the behaviour of Soviet troops in the region. By examining women’s accounts in particular, I aim to illustrate the potential extent of sexual violence in Slovakia, which is relatively unexplored, and to emphasize how the subsequent relationship with the Soviet Union affected the collective memory of sexual violence in Slovakia.

Remembering encounters with the Red Army

The social stigma surrounding rape compelled many survivors to remain silent about their experiences of sexual violence. Instead they described witnessing other people being raped, feeling fear, being threatened by Soviet soldiers, or using strategies like hiding or disguising themselves as old women to avoid rape.
Within various oral history archives consisting predominantly of interviews with Holocaust survivors, a large number of interviewees also testified about the liberation and their experiences with the Red Army. Lilly Selby was a 36-year-old woman, who was Jewish and survived the war by going into hiding in 
Trnava
deu. Tyrnau, lat. Tyrnavia, hun. Nagyszombat, hun. Sumbot, lat. Tirnauia, lat. Turnaw, lat. Dyrna, lat. Tyrna, hun. Szombat, lat. Zumbothel, deu. Trnava

Trnava (population 2024: 63,180) is the administrative seat and district town in western Slovakia. The city is one of the largest cities and most important industrial locations in Slovakia. There was already a settlement on the site of today's city at the time of the Great Moravian Empire. Germans settled here in the 13th century, living alongside the predominantly Slavic population of the then Hungarian town. The oldest known name is Sumbot from 1211, which refers to the market rights and the market day (szombot = Hungarian ˏSaturday'). In 1238, Trnava was the first town in present-day Slovakia to be granted the title of royal town. In the years 1418-1425, the town was occupied by the Hussites. In 1543, it became the most important ecclesiastical center of the Hungarian kingdom. Although the university, founded in 1635, was moved to Ofen in 1777, Trnava remained an important educational center, especially for the Slovak population. The city became part of Czechoslovakia in 1918 and has been part of independent Slovakia since 1992, as it was between 1939 and 1945.

Trnava in the Online Encyclopedia of the Culture and History of the Germans in Eastern Europe (German)
Trnava at Google Maps
. When the Red Army entered the city, Lilly Selby remained in her shelter, and explained, “We were hiding from the Russians. Every woman was raped by Russians. Every woman.”13 She added what she knew about the crimes of the Red Army soldiers in Trnava: “In the church cellar there were over a thousand [Slovak] women hiding. They were all raped […] the Russians were terrible…terrible…” The interviewer asked if no soldier had raped her because she was Jewish. Lilly Selby replied: “They did not care if they are Slovaks or Czechs or Germans. They raped everyone.”14 
Another Jewish survivor, Eva Freedman, who was only 11 years old when the Red Army came to 
Nitra
hun. Nyitra, lat. Nithria, lat. Nitria, lat. Nitrava, pol. Nitra, ces. Nitra, tur. لـ يترا, yid. neyyṭrʾ, yid. nejṭrʾ, yid. nejṭra, yid. neytra, yid. nejtra, yid. נייטרא, tur. Litra, lat. Nitrawa

Nitra (population 2024: 75,945) is an administrative center in western Slovakia. As early as the 9th century, Nitra was the capital of the same-named principality which was part of the Great Moravian Empire. The first known church in Slovakia was founded here around 830, and the diocese of Nitra, founded in 880, is the oldest in Slovakia. At the end of the 10th century, Nitra briefly belonged to Bohemia and at the beginning of the 11th century to Poland. In the late Middle Ages and in modern times, the town was conquered several times, including in 1663-1664 by the Turks, who made Nitra the administrative seat of a sancak. The baroque reconstruction in the 18th century still characterizes the townscape today. In 1918, the predominantly Hungarian or magyarized population of the town resisted incorporation into the just founded Czechoslovakia until the arrival of the army. Since 1992, Nitra has been part of independent Slovakia, as it was between 1939 and 1945. During the Second World War, Jewish population of the city was exterminated. Towards the end of the Second World War, the town was bombed by the Soviet air force in 1945.

Nitra in the Online Encyclopedia of the Culture and History of the Germans in Eastern Europe (German)
Nitra at Google Maps
, described that leaving one’s house was dangerous not only for women, but also for children like herself: “It was very, very dangerous to go out, because practically every woman, young or old, was raped.” Eva Freedman went onto explain the consequence of the rapes: “Nine months afterwards, it was an incredible city. Nearly everybody was pregnant.”15
Holocaust-Überlebende erfuhren sexuelle Gewalt durch die Befreiungsarmeen, einschließlich der Roten Armee, Bild aus einem Interview mit Eva Freedman, zur Verfügung gestellt von der USC Shoah Foundation - The Institute for Visual History and Education. Fü
Holocaust-Überlebende erfuhren sexuelle Gewalt durch die Befreiungsarmeen, einschließlich der Roten Armee, Bild aus einem Interview mit Eva Freedman, zur Verfügung gestellt von der USC Shoah Foundation - The Institute for Visual History and Education. Fü
A number of Holocaust survivors directly experienced or witnessed sexual violence commit-ted by the liberating armies, including Red Army, Source: Image taken from an interview with Eva Freedman provided by the USC Shoah Foundation – The Institute for Visual History and Education. For more information, please visit: http://sfi.usc.edu/. Free access - no reuse
A number of Holocaust survivors directly experienced or witnessed sexual violence commit-ted by the liberating armies, including Red Army, Source: Image taken from an interview with Eva Freedman provided by the USC Shoah Foundation – The Institute for Visual History and Education. For more information, please visit: http://sfi.usc.edu/. Free access - no reuse
In addition to describing how she hid in a closet so as not to be found by a soldier who intended to rape her, Magdaléna Pribylincová, who was 21 years old when the Red Army entered her city 
Poprad
deu. Deutschendorf, hun. Poprád, pol. Poprad, lat. Villa Theutonicalis

Poprad (population 2024: 48,352) is a county seat on the River Popper (Slovakian: Poprad) in the western Slovakian district of Prešov. It lies in a basin on the southern edge of the High Tatras. Poprad is the largest town in the historic region of Spiš, which in the past was the object of competition between Polish and Hungarian kings. The town was first mentioned in 1256. Germans settled here in the 13th century and soon became the predominant population group. In 1918, the town became part of Czechoslovakia and since 1992, as in 1939-1945, it has been part of independent Slovakia. Today, Poprad plays an important role in tourism, especially as a starting point for trips to the Tatra Mountains, and is an important industrial location.

Poprad in the Online Encyclopedia of the Culture and History of the Germans in Eastern Europe (German)
Poprad at Google Maps
, remembered how the local authorities decided to handle the pregnancies resulting from rapes. An announcement on the city radio station in Poprad declared that “anyone who was raped by Russian soldiers should report to the clinic. For anyone who does not want that child, they will remove [abort] it.”16
Dozens of other testimonies by women and men stored in various national and international archives spoke about the rape which occurred in Slovakia at end of the war. Some described the Soviet soldiers as reckless, others stressed that some Soviet officers punished soldiers who intended to rape or who actually raped local women.

Police investigation of rapes committed by Soviet soldiers

Since neither Slovak nor Czechoslovak authorities had the jurisdiction to prosecute Soviet soldiers, no direct investigations into rapes committed by Soviet troops were conducted. Instead, sexual violence appears only incidentally in police reports or cases where it was mentioned. The rare cases of police investigations mentioning rapes show that the women who reported the sexual crimes that had been committed by Soviet soldiers did not find justice. The police investigations typically sought to blame the victim, for example, by asking the woman who had allegedly been raped to describe what she had been wearing at the time, her sexual history and the reasons why she did not fight or scream. 23-year-old Olga F. reported that four unknown Soviet soldiers had raped her.17 Instead of accusing anyone for the crime, the authorities blamed her for travelling on her own at night, thus contributing to the marginalization of sexual violence and victim blaming. Another case also hints at the scale of sexual violence in Slovakia: 23-year-old Jolana O. was investigated on a different matter, but her court case shows the experience of rape in one family.18 Soviet soldiers raped both of her sisters and one of them became pregnant as a result of the rape.
Based on these sources alone, it is impossible to determine the exact number of girls and women who were raped or to draw any broad conclusions, since the sources are scarce and many witnesses and victims remained silent. However, the cases where women did testify reveal a widespread awareness of the danger of rape by Soviet soldiers, and include references to warnings to women about how to protect themselves, personal accounts of rape, witness accounts, and accounts of others who had been victims, indicating that sexual violence committed by Soviet soldiers was a common experience by end of the Second World War.
Im Gegensatz zur staatssozialistischen Propaganda, die freundschaftliche Verbrüderungen zwischen slowakischen Frauen und sowjetischen Soldaten darstellte, wurde Mädchen und Frauen laut einer Reihe von Quellen geraten, Orte zu meiden, an denen sowjetische
Im Gegensatz zur staatssozialistischen Propaganda, die freundschaftliche Verbrüderungen zwischen slowakischen Frauen und sowjetischen Soldaten darstellte, wurde Mädchen und Frauen laut einer Reihe von Quellen geraten, Orte zu meiden, an denen sowjetische
In contrast to the state socialist propaganda which illustrated friendly fraternizing between Slovak women and Soviet soldiers, according to a number of sources girls and women were advised to avoid places where Soviet troops were stationed. Sign. G 1809, Imrich Vysočan: Oslobodenie, 1957 / Slovenská národná galéria (SNG), Free access - no reuse
In contrast to the state socialist propaganda which illustrated friendly fraternizing between Slovak women and Soviet soldiers, according to a number of sources girls and women were advised to avoid places where Soviet troops were stationed. Sign. G 1809, Imrich Vysočan: Oslobodenie, 1957 / Slovenská národná galéria (SNG), Free access - no reuse
Verbrüderung
Verbrüderung
Fraternization. Sign. G 1064, Matilda Čechová: Nezabudneme, 1955 / Slovenská národná galéria (SNG), Free access - no reuse
Fraternization. Sign. G 1064, Matilda Čechová: Nezabudneme, 1955 / Slovenská národná galéria (SNG), Free access - no reuse

“Just a gang of Soviet deserters”

The behaviour of Soviet troops in Slovakia prompted the Slovak communist leader, Vladimír Klementis Vladimír Klementis Vladimír Clementis (20 September 1902 Tisovec, Slovakia [at that time, Austria-Hungary] – 3 December 1952, Prague, Czechia [at that time, Czechoslovakia]) was a Slovak and Czechoslovak politician, lawyer, publicist, literary critic, author and a prominent member of the Czechoslovak Communist Party from 1924 onwards. At the time of the establishment of the wartime Slovak State, in March 1939, he went to exile. He criticised the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Union on a number of issues, as well as the Czechoslovak Communist Party. Subsequently he was expelled from the Party. In 1945 he was readmitted to the Communist Party, and became State Secretary at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Between 1948 and 1950, he served as Minister of Foreign Affairs of Czechoslovakia. In 1952, he was accused of “Titoism” and “national deviation” during the Slánský trial and executed. , to complain to Marshal Ivan Konev, who responded that the main culprits were just a gang of “Soviet deserters”.19 The Soviet military authorities tended to downplay the crimes committed by Red Army soldiers in general, and in particular when talking to communist leaders.20
Marschall Konew bei der Befreiung von Prag am 9. Mai 1945
Marschall Konew bei der Befreiung von Prag am 9. Mai 1945
Marshal Konev during the liberation of Prague on 9 May 1945. https://cs.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soubor:Prague_liberation_1945_konev.jpg, CC BY-SA 3.0
Marshal Konev during the liberation of Prague on 9 May 1945. https://cs.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soubor:Prague_liberation_1945_konev.jpg, CC BY-SA 3.0
An der Befreiung der Slowakei waren neben der Roten Armee auch die Königliche Rumänische Armee und das im sowjetischen Exil gebildete 1. tschechoslowakische Armeekorps beteiligt, „Formation of Czechoslovak units in the Soviet Union“, ohne Unterschrift, oh
An der Befreiung der Slowakei waren neben der Roten Armee auch die Königliche Rumänische Armee und das im sowjetischen Exil gebildete 1. tschechoslowakische Armeekorps beteiligt, „Formation of Czechoslovak units in the Soviet Union“, ohne Unterschrift, oh
In addition to the Red Army, the Romanian Royal Army and the 1st Czechoslovak Army Corps formed in Soviet exile participated in the liberation of Slovakia, “Formation of Czechoslovak units in the Soviet Union”, no signature, no location, undated, Personal archive of Jozef Nálepka, Located in the Archive of the Museum of National History in Hlohovec [Archív Vlastivedného múzea v Hlohovci]. Jozef Nálepka, Free access - no reuse
In addition to the Red Army, the Romanian Royal Army and the 1st Czechoslovak Army Corps formed in Soviet exile participated in the liberation of Slovakia, “Formation of Czechoslovak units in the Soviet Union”, no signature, no location, undated, Personal archive of Jozef Nálepka, Located in the Archive of the Museum of National History in Hlohovec [Archív Vlastivedného múzea v Hlohovci]. Jozef Nálepka, Free access - no reuse

“Hordes of Soviet rapists”

Konev’s argument stands in stark contrast to Slovak wartime propaganda. However, the credibility of Slovak propaganda sources is also highly questionable: these were deeply influenced by the regime’s ideological alignment with Nazi Germany and its intent to sow fear and reinforce loyalty through exaggerated or fabricated narratives from early 1945 by portraying the Red Army as “hordes of Soviet rapists, violent barbarians, and uncontrollable drunkards”.
Informationen über kriminelles Verhalten, Plünderungen und Vergewaltigungen durch die Rote Armee in der Slowakei wurden im März 1945 auf der Titelseite der staatlichen Zeitung Slovák unter dem Titel „Großes Erwachen“ veröffentlicht
Informationen über kriminelles Verhalten, Plünderungen und Vergewaltigungen durch die Rote Armee in der Slowakei wurden im März 1945 auf der Titelseite der staatlichen Zeitung Slovák unter dem Titel „Großes Erwachen“ veröffentlicht
Articles about criminal behaviour, looting, and rapes committed by Red Army in Slovakia was published on the front page of the state newspaper Slovák with the title “Big Awakening” in March 1945. Slovák 27 (1945), Nr. 66, S. 1, Free access - no reuse
Articles about criminal behaviour, looting, and rapes committed by Red Army in Slovakia was published on the front page of the state newspaper Slovák with the title “Big Awakening” in March 1945. Slovák 27 (1945), Nr. 66, S. 1, Free access - no reuse
For instance, in March 1945 the newspaper Slovák [The Slovak] printed a story describing Slovak men from 
Liptovský Mikuláš
deu. Liptau-Sankt-Nikolaus, lat. Scentmiklos, slk. Liptovský Svätý Mikuláš, hun. Liptószentmiklós, deu. Liptau-Nikolaus, deu. Sankt Nikolaus in der Liptau

Liptovský Mikuláš (population 2024: 29,860) is a district town and the capital of the historic region of Liptov in the north of Slovakia. It was first mentioned in 1286 and in it was mentioned 1360 as market town. The Jewish population settled in Liptovský Mikuláš from the 18th century at the latest, and the first Jewish mayor in the Kingdom of Hungary was elected here in 1865. Liptovský Mikuláš played an important role in the Slovak national movement - during the revolution of 1848/49 it was a center of the Slovak uprising. The Demands of the Slovak Nation to the Kingdom of Hungary were proclaimed here. In 1918, the town became part of Czechoslovakia and since 1992, as in 1939-1945, it has been part of independent Slovakia. In 1970, the Liptov Reservoir on the Váh River was built directly in front of the town.

Liptovský Mikuláš at Google Maps
Historische Orte
Liptovský Svätý Mikuláš
 
, who allegedly welcomed the Red Army soldiers, and prepared a celebration. According to Slovák, the celebration took a different turn when the soldiers kicked the men out and raped the women: “Regardless of whether they were 12 or 60 years old. [...] Today, many are in hospital, since a large percentage of Slavic liberators carried sexually transmitted diseases.” 21 The newspaper also suggested that such celebrations, ending in rape, were not exceptional but rather a common feature of Soviet presence. Slovák also stated that the threat of social stigmatization prevented most women from reporting incidents of rape.

Memoirs of the Red Army from exile

Reports of sexual violence in Slovakia created by democratic parties in Czechoslovakia might also be considered politically charged. For instance, Czechoslovak politician Jan Stránsky Jan Stránsky Jan Stránsky (3 December 1913 Brno, Czechia [at that time, Austria-Hungary] – 11 February 1988 Connecticut, USA) was a Czech and Czechoslovak lawyer, journalist, politician of the Czechoslovak National Social Party and a post-war member of the Constituent National Assembly [Ústavodárné národní shromáždení]. After 1948 he lived in exile, first in Germany, then the UK and eventually in the USA. In 1951, he co-founded the Czech section of the Free Europe radio station in Munich. In 1952, he went to New York, where he worked as the head of the press service and political adviser of Free Europe until his retirement. from the Czech National Social Party [Ceská strana národne sociální strana], reflected in exile on the liberation experiences. In his 1950 book “East Wind Over Prague”, he wrote about sexual violence against Czech and Slovak women: “The saddest chapter, however, of the story of Soviet liberation is that concerning violence committed against women.”
Jan Stránsky (stehend) arbeitete während des Zweiten Weltkriegs als Sekretär von Jan Šrámek, dem Premierminister der tschechoslowakischen Exilregierung in London
Jan Stránsky (stehend) arbeitete während des Zweiten Weltkriegs als Sekretär von Jan Šrámek, dem Premierminister der tschechoslowakischen Exilregierung in London
Jan Stránsky (standing) acted as clerk to Jan Šrámek, the prime minister of the Czechoslovak government in exile in London during the Second World War. Sign. 0670611668 / Česká tisková kancelář (ČTK), Free access - no reuse
Jan Stránsky (standing) acted as clerk to Jan Šrámek, the prime minister of the Czechoslovak government in exile in London during the Second World War. Sign. 0670611668 / Česká tisková kancelář (ČTK), Free access - no reuse
He wrote about villages where over half the women were raped by Red Army soldiers, hundreds of women being hospitalized due to injuries or sexually transmitted infections inflicted by the soldiers committing sexual violence, and children and elderly women who were raped. Stránsky’s book clearly aimed to position Czechoslovakia as a victim of the Soviet occupation. 
While the wartime newspaper reports could have been fabricated for propaganda purposes, and Stránsky’s post-war memoir seems often to have been based on hearsay, the same narratives appear to reflect reality, as they are corroborated by accounts found in testimonies and reports by women.

The combat unity of Slavs and the unsystematic punishment of sexual violence

The Red Army was indeed welcomed by many Slovaks who greeted the soldiers with flowers, hugs and kisses, wanting to celebrate the end of the war together.
Tschechen und Slowaken stellten ihre Kampfverbände auf und kämpften Seite an Seite mit der Roten Armee gegen Deutschland. Doch die lang ersehnte Befreiung war nicht nur ein Fest, Plakat „Kampfgemeinschaft der Slawen. Todesurteil über deutsche Bestien“ [Bo
Tschechen und Slowaken stellten ihre Kampfverbände auf und kämpften Seite an Seite mit der Roten Armee gegen Deutschland. Doch die lang ersehnte Befreiung war nicht nur ein Fest, Plakat „Kampfgemeinschaft der Slawen. Todesurteil über deutsche Bestien“ [Bo
Czechs and Slovaks formed their combat units and fought side by side with the Red Army against Nazi Germany. Yet the long-awaited liberation was not all celebration, Poster “Combat unity of the Slavs. Death sentence on German beasts [Bojová jednota Slovanov. Rozsudok smrti nad nemeckými beštiami]”. Sign. N78/84 / Múzeum Slovenského národného povstania, Free access - no reuse
Czechs and Slovaks formed their combat units and fought side by side with the Red Army against Nazi Germany. Yet the long-awaited liberation was not all celebration, Poster “Combat unity of the Slavs. Death sentence on German beasts [Bojová jednota Slovanov. Rozsudok smrti nad nemeckými beštiami]”. Sign. N78/84 / Múzeum Slovenského národného povstania, Free access - no reuse
Yet soon many realized the bitter, gendered aftertaste of liberation. Clearly, some women deliberately fraternized with the soldiers of the liberating army. Some sought adventure, others used their sexual relationships with officers to protect themselves from rape by common soldiers, while others bartered their sexual services to help to provide for themselves or their families in the difficult post-war days.22
Leonid Iljitsch Breschnew posiert mit Frauen, die in Kežmarok wohnen. Die Personen auf den Bildern sind nicht identifiziert. Die erste Frau links jedoch, Frau Drzewiecka, war in der Stadt unter dem Spitznamen „Polnische Gräfin“ und als eifrige Kommunistin
Leonid Iljitsch Breschnew posiert mit Frauen, die in Kežmarok wohnen. Die Personen auf den Bildern sind nicht identifiziert. Die erste Frau links jedoch, Frau Drzewiecka, war in der Stadt unter dem Spitznamen „Polnische Gräfin“ und als eifrige Kommunistin
Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev posing with women residing in Kežmarok. While the people on the pictures have not been identified, the first woman on the left, Ms. Drzewiecka, was known in the town by the nickname “Polish Countess” and for being a zealous Communist. The photograph was taken at the Tatraľan factory in Kežmarok, January 28, 1945. At that time, Brezhnev was the chief political commissar of the 4th Ukrainian Front, which entered Prague in May 1945. Private collection of Marcel Maniak. Free access - no reuse
Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev posing with women residing in Kežmarok. While the people on the pictures have not been identified, the first woman on the left, Ms. Drzewiecka, was known in the town by the nickname “Polish Countess” and for being a zealous Communist. The photograph was taken at the Tatraľan factory in Kežmarok, January 28, 1945. At that time, Brezhnev was the chief political commissar of the 4th Ukrainian Front, which entered Prague in May 1945. Private collection of Marcel Maniak. Free access - no reuse
However, most of girls and women who were brutalized by the Red Army soldiers had very little choice. Based on fragmented sources, the actions of soldiers in the territory of Slovakia were often tacitly overlooked by their superiors, being perceived as a byproduct of war.23 In some instances, when superiors became aware of sexual violence having been perpetrated by their soldiers, those soldiers were promptly executed.24 This is also mentioned in women’s testimonies. Stránsky acknowledged that a number of Red Army officers punished their own soldiers, having them shot for committing acts of sexual violence, and a number of testimonies suggest this too.
Later, in the official Stalinist narrative of liberation emphasizing comradeship, there was no place for discussing the violence that Soviet soldiers had committed against Czech and Slovak girls and women. Finding its place in academic research, the story of sexual violence committed by the Red Army during the liberation of Czechoslovakia and beyond, although persistently repeated, has become a marginal storyline and something of an urban myth.25
In der feierlichen Darstellung der Befreiung wurden die von der Roten Armee begangenen Verbrechen nicht thematisiert. Bild von der Feier der Ereignisse des 1. Mai 1945
In der feierlichen Darstellung der Befreiung wurden die von der Roten Armee begangenen Verbrechen nicht thematisiert. Bild von der Feier der Ereignisse des 1. Mai 1945
The celebratory narrative of liberation omitted any debates on crimes perpetrated by the Red Army. Picture taken during Celebration of the events of 1 May 1945. Jozef Teslík, Oslavy prvého mája / Slovenská tlačová kancelária (STK), Free access - no reuse
The celebratory narrative of liberation omitted any debates on crimes perpetrated by the Red Army. Picture taken during Celebration of the events of 1 May 1945. Jozef Teslík, Oslavy prvého mája / Slovenská tlačová kancelária (STK), Free access - no reuse
Those who actually witnessed or experienced sexual violence at the hands of Red Army soldiers would recall the level of violence, “to which the system either shuts its eyes or which it just does not know how to deal with.”26 Therefore, even though 80 years have passed since the end of the Second World War, deeper analysis of relevant sources still allows us to shed light on the gruesome reality of liberation for many people across Europe.
Denisa Nešťáková
Denisa Nešťáková
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Footnotes
1.
See Gebhardt, Miriam: Als die Soldaten kamen. Die Vergewaltigung deutscher Frauen am Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs. München 2015.
2.
See Krimmer, Elisabeth: German Women’s Life Writing and the Holocaust: Complicity and Gender in the Second World War. New York 2018.
3.
Pető, Andrea: Memory and the Narrative of Rape in Budapest and Vienna. In: Bessel, Richard/Schumann, Dirk (Hrsg.): Life after Death: Approaches to a Cultural and Social History of Europe during the 1940s and 1950s. Cambridge 2003, pp. 129–148.
4.
See Maniak, Marcel: Oslobodenie. Kežmarok 2015.
5.
Eglitis, Daina S.: Silences of Memory: Liberator Sexual Assault in the East at the End of World War II. In: The Journal of Holocaust Research 38,3–4 2024, pp. 316–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/25785648.2024.2363468.
6.
See Applebaum, Rachel: Empire of Friends: Soviet Power and Socialist Internationalism in Cold War Czechoslovakia. Ithaca 2019.
7.
See Majstorović, Vojin: The Red Army in Yugoslavia, 1944–1945. In: Slavic Review 75,2 (2016), pp. 396–421.
8.
Drábik, Jakub: Delikty sovietskej armády na východnom Slovensku. In: Slančová, Daniela/Žarnovská, Iveta (eds.): 2. študentská vedecká konferencia. Zborník príspevkov. Prešov 2006, pp. 211–224.
9.
See Vlk, Václav: Krvavé dozvuky války: konec druhé světové války na českém území. Prague 2015.
10.
See Nešťáková, Denisa: Be Fruitful and Multiply: Slovakia’s Family Planning Under Three Regimes 1918–1965. Marburg 2023.
11.
See Hübschmannová, Milena: Po Židoch Cigáni I. díl (1939–srpen 1944): Svědectví Romů ze Slovenska 1939–1945. Prague 2005.
12.
See Korhel, Michal: Children as ‘Collateral Damage’ of Nationalisation Campaigns? The Persecution of ‘Nationally Unreliable’ Persons in Czechoslovakia after the Second World War. In: Lee, Sabine/Glaesmer, Heide (eds.): Children Born of War: Past, Present and Future. New York–London 2022, pp. 212–231.
13.
Selby, Lilly. Interview 18067. Interview by Joseph Bobrow.Visual History Archive, USC Shoah Foundation, August 14, 1996. Internet address: https://vha.usc.edu/testimony/18067 [last accessed: 15/07/2024].
14.
Selby, Lilly. Interview 18067. Interview by Joseph Bobrow.Visual History Archive, USC Shoah Foundation, August 14, 1996. Internet address: https://vha.usc.edu/testimony/18067 [last accessed: 15/07/2024].
15.
Freedman, Eva. Interview 22944. Interview by Bernice Krantz. Visual History Archive, USC Shoah Foundation, November 20, 1996. Internet address: https://vha.usc.edu/testimony/22944 [last accessed: 12/07/2024].
16.
Pribylincová, Magdaléna. Interview RG-50.688.0054. Interview by Eva Riečanská, USHMM, February 09, 2016. Internet address: https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn533582 [last accessed: 10/08/2024].
17.
Court Case against Oľga F. In: Štátny archív Bratislava (ŠA BA), Fund Krajský súd Bratislava. III. manipulačné obdobie. Trestné spisy TK, Tmk, MI IV. zv. (1940–1945), Sign. 1016/1945, not pag.
18.
Court Case against Jolana O. In: Štátny archív Bratislava (ŠA BA), Fund Krajský súd Bratislava. Trestné spisy TK, Tmk, MI V. zv. (1946–1948), Sign. 1965/1946, not pag.
19.
Naimark, Norman M.: The Russians in Germany. A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949. Cambridge 1997, p. 71.
20.
See Kehoe, Thomas J./Kehoe, E. James: Crimes Committed by U.S. Soldiers in Europe, 1945–1946. In: The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 47,1 (2016), pp. 53–84.
21.
N.N.: Veľké prebudenie. In: Slovák 27 (1945), no. 66, p. 1.
22.
See Kunt, Gerhely: Wartime Sexual Economy as Seen through a Hungarian Woman's World War II Diary. In: Feminist Studies 43,1 (2017), pp. 108–133.
23.
Mühlhäuser, Regina: Reframing Sexual Violence as a Weapon and Strategy of War. In: Journal of the History of Sexuality 26,3 (2017): Special Issue: Transgressive Sex, Love, and Violence in World War II Germany and Britain, pp. 367–375.
24.
See Luster, Edith. Interview 18431. Interview by Lillian Gewirtzman. Visual History Archive, USC Shoah Foundation, August 08, 1996. URL: https://vha.usc.edu/testimony/18431 [last accessed 9/12/2024].
25.
Hruboň, Anton: Historicko-právne otázky sexuality a sexuálnych trestných činov v Slovenskej republike 1939–1945 (niektoré aspekty problematiky). In: Karol Schelle and Jaromír Tauchen (eds.): Sexuální trestné činy včera a dnes. Ostrava 2014, pp. 185–193.
26.
Stránsky, Jan: East Wind over Prague. New York 1950, p. 35.

Citation
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  • Denisa Nešťáková (2025-05-08): The “Glory” of Liberation. Sexual violence perpetrated by the Red Army in Slovakia at the end of World War II. In: Copernico. History and Cultural Heritage in Eastern Europe. URL: https://www.copernico.eu/en/link/681091db963c47.84552579 (2025-06-20)
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