Marketing in Soviet Foreign Tourism

The Soviet Union (SU or USSR) was a state in Eastern Europe, Central and Northern Asia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It emerged from the so-called Soviet Russia, the successor state of the Russian Empire. The Russian Soviet Republic formed the core of the union and at the same time its largest part, with further constituent republics added. Their number varied over time and was related to the occupation of other countries (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Soviet republics that existed only for a short time (Karelo-Finlandia) or the division or merger of Soviet republics. In addition, there were numerous autonomous republics or other territorial units with an autonomy status that was essentially limited to linguistic autonomy for minorities.

Before its formal dissolution, the USSR consisted of 15 Soviet republics with a population of approximately 290 million people. At around 22.4 million km², it was the largest territorial state in the world at the time. The Soviet Union was a socialist soviet republic with a one-party system and an absence of separation of powers.

Moscow (population 2024: 13,146,907) is the capital of the Russian Federation and the most populous city located entirely in Europe. It is situated in the west of the country. Moscow is also the capital of the Central Russian Federal District. The administrative unit “City of Federal Significance Moscow” includes several other towns and has a population of 13,258,262. The city is by far the most important political, economic, scientific, and cultural center of the country.

Moscow was founded around the 11th/12th century. The construction of the fortification (Kremlin) is dated to the beginning of the second half of the 12th century. In the 13th century, Moscow became the capital of a sub-principality of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. In the 14th century, the princes of Moscow established themselves as rulers of the entire Rus. However, from 1247 to 1480, it was required to pay tribute to the Golden Horde, which devastated Moscow in 1238. In 1571, the city, which was almost entirely built of wood, was burned down by Tatar troops. By this time, however, Moscow was already the undisputed center of power in Russia. In 1687, the city's first college was opened, followed by its first university in 1775. Peter the Great moved the capital to Saint Petersburg in 1712. Weakened by unrest and plague, Moscow's development lagged behind that of the new capital. The invasion of Napoleon's troops in 1812 brought a deep cut in Moscow's development, with the city's population setting their houses on fire to repel them. The rapid reconstruction gave Moscow a modern cityscape.

After the October Revolution and the relocation of the capital back to Moscow in 1918, the city experienced an enormous expansion of its public infrastructure, and numerous prestigious buildings were erected until World War II. However, the expansion of residential space was never able to keep pace with population growth. This growth could not be slowed down, even by various restrictions on in-migration, some of which are still in force today. However, the city also grew through incorporations, particularly in 1960 and 2012.

In 1980, Moscow hosted the Summer Olympics. In the years that followed, however, the growing crisis in the Soviet Union also affected the city, which, following decentralization movements in the republics and unrest in Russia itself, was ultimately directly affected by the attempted coup in 1991. After the final collapse of the Soviet Union at the end of 1991, Moscow remained the capital of Russia. Since then, the city center in particular has been increasingly characterized by modern, prestigious buildings. Other features of the city's development in the post-Soviet era include the reconstruction of churches destroyed or repurposed during the Soviet era, the renovation of pre-Soviet buildings in the city center, and the expansion of transport infrastructure on the outskirts.

Saint Petersburg (population in 2024: 5,645,943, of which 4,732,198 live in the city proper) is a metropolis in northeastern Russia. It is the country’s second-largest city after Moscow. The city was founded in 1703 by Peter the Great at the mouth of the Neva River in the Baltic Sea. From 1712 to 1918, it was the capital of Russia. Alongside Moscow, St. Petersburg is Russia’s most important site for industry, education, culture, and trade, as well as one of its most important ports. From 1914 to 1924, the city was known as Petrograd, and from 1924 to 1991, as Leningrad.
During World War II, the city was besieged by the German Wehrmacht from September 8, 1941, to January 27, 1944—a total of 871 days. Over one million civilians died in the city, which had been systematically cut off from all supplies.

Kiev is located on the Dnieper River and has been the capital of Ukraine since 1991. According to the oldest Russian chronicle, the Nestor Chronicle, Kiev was first mentioned in 862. It was the main settlement of Kievan Rus' until 1362, when it fell to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, becoming part of the Polish-Lithuanian noble republic in 1569. In 1667, after the uprising under Cossack leader Bogdan Chmel'nyc'kyj and the ensuing Polish-Russian War, Kiev became part of Russia. In 1917 Kiev became the capital of the Ukrainian People's Republic, in 1918 of the Ukrainian National Republic, and in 1934 of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.
Kiev was also called the "Mother of all Russian Cities", "Jerusalem of the East", "Capital of the Golden Domes" and "Heart of Ukraine".
Kiev is heavily contested in the Russian-Ukrainian war.

Due to the war in Ukraine, it is possible that this information is no longer up to date.

Odessa is a metropolis in southwestern Ukraine which had about one million inhabitants in 2019. It is located about 480 km south of Kiev, near the border with the Republic of Moldova and directly on the Black Sea. Odessa is the most important port city in Ukraine.

Due to the war in Ukraine, it is possible that this information is no longer up to date.

Today, Minsk is the capital of the Republic of Belarus. Its history dates back to 1067.
Over the centuries, Minsk belonged to the Principality of Polock, the Grand Duchies of Kiev and Lithuania, the united Poland-Lithuania, the Russian Empire, the Belarusian Democratic Republic (briefly the Lithuanian-Belarusian SSR), the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, which belonged to the Soviet Union, and finally to Belarus. The multicultural city, which at all times was home to other minorities in addition to Jews, Poles, Russians and Belarusians, suffered repeatedly from passing armies and the consequences of war, for example in the Russo-Polish War (1654-1667), the Great Northern War (1700-1721), under Napoleon, and in the First and Second World Wars. Under German occupation, the largest ghetto in the occupied People's Republic was established in Minsk in 1941. The death camp Maly Trostinez was located near the city. At the same time, the surrounding forests were a center of resistance. After World War Two, the city was rebuilt in the socialist style, including housing for a population that was rapidly increasing due to industrialization and urbanization.

Tallinn (until 1918 Reval) is the capital of Estonia. It is located in the Harju County, right on the Baltic Sea and is home to about 434,000 people.

Riga is the capital of Latvia (population 2025: 588,911) and by far the largest city in the country. It is located in the southwest of the historical landscape of Livonia near the mouth of the Daugava River in the Gulf of Riga. Riga was an important trading and Hanseatic city with a multi-ethnic, but largely German-speaking population for centuries, whose political supremacy changed repeatedly. Until the end of the Middle Ages, it was mainly spiritual rulers (Archbishopric of Riga, Teutonic Order) who claimed the city and surrounding area for themselves, but after a brief period of Polish-Lithuanian rule, the city came under Swedish control in 1621. A century later, Riga became part of the Russian Empire and the capital of the Baltic governorate of Livonia.

In 1918, Riga became the capital of an independent Latvian state. After the German occupation during the Second World War in 1941, the Jewish population of Riga (8% of the total population) was mainly imprisoned in the ghetto, where numerous Jewish people from the territory of the German Reich at the time were also deported. In the same year, the Wehrmacht organized mass shootings of the Jewish population in the area of today's city. After the Second World War, the ethnic structure of Riga changed - the Jewish, German and Polish populations disappeared and were replaced by Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian populations. The Latvian population lost its majority in the city and fell to almost a third by the time the Soviet Union collapsed. They now make up 47% of the total population.

Crimea is a peninsula separating the Black Sea from the Sea of Azov. It is inhabited by nearly 2.3 million people. The capital is Sevastopol. The island is largely inhabited by Russian-speaking populations. Its status has been disputed under international law since 2014.

The Black Sea lies between Eastern Europe, Asia Minor, and the Caucasus. Since it is connected northward only via the Kerch Strait to the shelf sea, the Sea of Azov, and southward only via the Bosporus to the Mediterranean Sea, it has the character of an inland sea. It reaches a depth of up to 2,212 m and covers an area of approximately 436,400 km²—or 474,000 km² when including the Sea of Azov. Its largest tributaries are the Danube, the Dnieper, and the Don.

Yalta (population in 2024: 72,013) is the most popular resort town on the Black Sea coast of the Crimean Peninsula, which formally belongs to Ukraine but has been occupied by Russia since 2014. Yalta’s origins date back to ancient times. Yalta is associated with the Greek colony of Gialos, which existed in the 5th century BCE. In the Middle Ages, the city was part of the Byzantine Empire. In the 14th century, it was a Genoese colony, and in the 15th century, it fell to the Ottoman Empire. In 1783, Yalta was conquered by Russia. During the German occupation (1941–1944) in World War II, a ghetto for the Jewish population was established in the city. Of the approximately 4,500 people there, most were shot on April 18, 1941. Yalta is known for the conference held there from February 4 to 11, 1945, during which the foundations for the postwar world order were laid as World War II drew to a close. In 1954, as part of the Soviet Union, the city—along with the Crimea—was transferred from the Russian to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.

Alushta (population in 2024: 29,641) is a popular resort town on the Black Sea coast on the Crimean Peninsula. Although the peninsula formally belongs to Ukraine, it was occupied by Russia in 2014. Alushta’s origins date back to ancient times. However, the original settlement was destroyed, and the modern city has been known since the Genoese rule in the 15th century. In 1475, Alushta belonged to the Crimean Khanate. During the war against the Ottoman Empire (1768–1774), it was conquered by Russia. Alushta has been a city since 1802. In 1954, as part of the Soviet Union, it was transferred—along with the entire peninsula—from the Russian Soviet Socialist Republic to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.

Yevpatoria (population in 2024: 105,549) is a seaport on the west coast of the Crimean Peninsula, which formally belongs to Ukraine but became occupied by Russia in 2014. Yevpatoria’s origins date back to the era of Greek colonization in antiquity. In the Middle Ages, the town lay within the sphere of influence of the Khazars and later the Kipchaks. In the 15th century, it fell to the Ottoman Empire, to which the Crimean Khanate paid tribute. In 1783, the city was conquered by Russia, and in 1784 its name was changed from Kozlov to Eupatoria. In 1954, as part of the Soviet Union, the city—along with the Crimea—was transferred from the Russian to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Since the 1930s, Eupatoria has been a major resort town specializing in particular in children’s recreation.

Feodosia (population in 2024: 64,493) is a port city and a popular seaside resort on the east coast of the Crimean Peninsula, which formally belongs to Ukraine but was occupied by Russia in 2014. Feodosia’s origins date back to the era of Greek colonization in antiquity. However, several settlements in the area of the present-day city were destroyed, the last of which was the Genoese colony of Caffa in 1308. It was later rebuilt at its current location. In the Middle Ages, the town lay within the sphere of influence of the Golden Horde and later within that of the Ottoman Empire, to which the Crimean Khanate paid tribute. In 1783, Russia conquered the city, known as Kefe, and renamed it Feodosia in 1804, after the ancient colony. In 1954, as part of the Soviet Union, the city—along with the Crimea—was transferred from the Russian to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Starting in the 11th century, an increasing number of Armenians migrated to the Crimea. Until the 18th century, they constituted a majority in Feodosia. They eventually assimilated into the Crimean Tatar population, most of whom were deported in 1944 and have only been able to resettle in the Crimea since 1989. During the German occupation in World War II (1941–1944), two-thirds of the city’s approximately 3,300 Jews were murdered in 1941.

Sokhumi (Abkhaz: Aqwa; population in 2024: 65,083) is the capital of Abkhazia, a region in northwestern Georgia that has been de facto independent since 1993 with Russian support. The modern city was built on the ruins of the Roman fortress of Sebastopolis. From the 8th century onward, it was known as Tskhumi, when it was part of the Kingdom of Abkhazia. Abkhazia was absorbed into the Kingdom of Georgia in 1008, from which it seceded again toward the end of the 15th century. In the 11th–12th centuries, Sukhumi served as the royal summer residence. The city played a central role in the Black Sea slave trade. In 1570, it fell definitively to the Ottoman Empire. In 1810, Russia conquered Sukhumi for the first time. This was followed by a period of alternating Russian and Ottoman conquests. It was not until the Russo-Ottoman War (1877–1878) that Russia finally prevailed. From 1918 to 1921, the city belonged to the Democratic Republic of Georgia until it was conquered by the Red Army. Subsequently, the Abkhazian SSR formed an equal part of the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, which was downgraded to an autonomous part of the Georgian SSR in 1931. During the Soviet era, Sukhumi developed into a lively, upscale seaside resort. Toward the end of the Soviet era, the city's population was twice as large as it is today; however, it has since declined by two-thirds, primarily due to the war against Georgia and subsequent ethnic conflicts.

Tbilisi (population in 2025: 1,309,028) is the capital of Georgia. It is located in the eastern part of the country in a valley of the Caucasus Mountains. The city was likely founded in the 4th century. It was part of the Kingdom of Iberia, which came under the rule of both the Persians and the Romans at various times. Later, the city first came under Byzantine rule and, beginning in 1068, under Seljuk rule. In 1121, it became the capital of the Kingdom of Georgia. Due to its location at a crossroads of several trade routes between Europe and Asia, the city soon prospered economically. In the 1220s, it was conquered several times by the Mongols and finally fell to them in 1235. In the 17th century, Tbilisi belonged to the Ottoman Empire; in the 19th century, it was occupied by the Persians and, in 1799, by the Russians. From 1850 onward, the entire Caucasus region of the Russian Empire was administered from Tbilisi. The city experienced a renaissance as a major commercial hub, benefiting from its additional roles as an administrative center and transportation hub. From 1918 to 1921, Tbilisi served as the capital of the Democratic Republic of Georgia until it was conquered by the Red Army.
Subsequently, until 1936, Tbilisi served as the capital of the Georgian SSR and, at the same time, of the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic. In the 1940s, several factories from areas threatened by the German invasion were evacuated to the city, which brought about a further economic boom. In 1956 and 1989, anti-Soviet demonstrations in Tbilisi were brutally suppressed. Since Georgia gained independence in 1991, the city’s appearance has become significantly more modern.

Batumi (population in 2025: 246,300) is a popular resort town in the Autonomous Republic of Adjara in northwestern Georgia. The city is located on the Black Sea coast. After the collapse of the medieval Kingdom of Georgia, the Ottoman Empire attempted to conquer Batumi, but did not succeed until 1614. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, the city fell to Russia. Batumi developed into a center for oil refining. In 1918, it was briefly recaptured by the Ottoman Empire but was taken by the British later that same year. In 1920, the city was handed over to Georgia. Georgia was annexed by Soviet Russia in 1921, and Batumi became the capital of the Autonomous Republic of Adjara, which formally belonged to Georgia from 1991 to 2004 but was de facto independent of the central government.

Baku (population in 2024: 1,187,200; metropolitan area: 2,351,300) is the capital and by far the largest city in Azerbaijan. It is located in the eastern part of the country on the Absheron Peninsula along the coast of the Caspian Sea. The region has been known since ancient times for its natural oil reserves, which today form the foundation of Azerbaijan’s economy. In the 12th century, Baku was the capital of the state of Shirvan. In the 16th century, the city was ruled first by the Ottoman Empire and then by Persia. In the 19th century, after several interruptions, the city finally fell to Russia in 1828. Industrial crude oil production began in the region in 1846. From 1918 onward, Baku was the capital of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, which was annexed by Soviet Russia in 1920. In the run-up to Azerbaijan’s independence (1991), unrest broke out in Baku in 1990, culminating in an occupation by the Soviet Army and anti-Armenian pogroms.

Samarkand (population in 2025: 605,800) is the capital of the same-named administrative region (viloyat) in eastern Uzbekistan. The date of Samarkand’s founding is unknown, but the city likely already existed in 329 BCE, when Alexander the Great conquered the region. Until the Arab conquest in 712, Samarkand’s allegiance shifted between various Greek empires and the Kushan Empire. In the 8th century, the city emerged as an important center of Islam in the Middle East. In the 9th–10th centuries, Samarkand was under Persian rule; subsequently, various Turkic peoples ruled the region. In 1220, the city was conquered and destroyed by Genghis Khan. In 1369, Samarkand became the capital of the Mongol Empire under Timur, and from 1500 onward, it served as the capital of the Uzbek Khanate until the khan moved to Bukhara. The territory later known as the Emirate of Bukhara fell under Russian influence in 1868. Beginning in 1924, it became a direct part of the Soviet Union, and from 1925 onward, the city belonged to the Uzbek SSR.

Bukhara (population in 2025: 279,100) is the capital of the administrative region (viloyat) of the same name in southern Uzbekistan. Bukhara is believed to have been founded in the 6th century BCE, when the region was under the influence of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. The city rapidly developed into an important center for long-distance trade. A branch of the Silk Road ran through Bukhara. Beginning in the 7th century, however, the city faced Arab attacks. In the 8th century, the Arabs partially conquered Bukhara and converted the population to Islam. In the 9th–10th centuries, Bukhara was once again under Persian rule; subsequently, various Turkic peoples ruled the region. In 1220, the city was conquered and destroyed by Genghis Khan. In the same century, additional troops invaded Bukhara, subjecting the population to severe repression and open terror. With the emergence of the Uzbek Khanate in 1428, new rulers came to power in the region. In 1506, the Khanate (later Emirate) of Bukhara was established, which came under Russian influence in 1868. Beginning in 1924, Bukhara was a direct part of the Soviet Union and, starting in 1925, belonged to the Uzbek SSR.

Sochi (population in 2024: 445,139) is a port city and a popular seaside resort on the eastern coast of the Black Sea in southern Russia. The foundation of the modern city was laid by Fort Aleksandiâ, built in 1838. The first settlement — Dahsovkij Posad — was established in 1874, while Fort Sochi was built in 1896. During the 1905–1907 Revolution, the short-lived Republic of Sochi was proclaimed (1905–1906), and during the civil war following the October Revolution, Georgia briefly occupied the town (1918–1919). Around the beginning of the 20th century, Sochi began to develop into a resort town, which led to it being granted city rights in 1916. Gradually, various bathing and health resorts sprang up in the city and its surroundings. Numerous celebrities also had their residences built in Sochi. Various sporting events are held in the city, such as the 2014 Winter Olympics.

Pyatigorsk (population in 2024: 142,895) is a city in the Stavropol Krai in southern Russia. Since 2010, Pyatigorsk has been the capital of the North Caucasus Federal District. The city was founded in 1830 as a health resort. During World War II, Pyatigorsk was occupied by the German Wehrmacht from 1942 to 1943.

The city on the Volga was called Tsaritsyn until 1925, then Stalingrad until 1961. It is internationally known because of the Battle of Stalingrad in World War II, in which the Wehrmacht and its allies were devastatingly defeated by the Red Army in the winter of 1942/43, and which is considered a psychological turning point in the war. In the framework of de-Stalinization, the city was renamed Volgograd in 1961.

Kazan (population in 2024: 1,329,825) is the largest city on the Volga River. The city is located in the Russian Republic of Tatarstan. As the republic’s capital and one of Russia’s largest cities, it is also one of Russia’s most important industrial centers. The city is characterized by a high proportion of Tatar and Muslim residents.

The Baltic States is a region in the north-east of Europe and is composed of the three states Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The Baltic States are inhabited by almost 6 million people.

Riga is the capital of Latvia (population 2025: 588,911) and by far the largest city in the country. It is located in the southwest of the historical landscape of Livonia near the mouth of the Daugava River in the Gulf of Riga. Riga was an important trading and Hanseatic city with a multi-ethnic, but largely German-speaking population for centuries, whose political supremacy changed repeatedly. Until the end of the Middle Ages, it was mainly spiritual rulers (Archbishopric of Riga, Teutonic Order) who claimed the city and surrounding area for themselves, but after a brief period of Polish-Lithuanian rule, the city came under Swedish control in 1621. A century later, Riga became part of the Russian Empire and the capital of the Baltic governorate of Livonia.

In 1918, Riga became the capital of an independent Latvian state. After the German occupation during the Second World War in 1941, the Jewish population of Riga (8% of the total population) was mainly imprisoned in the ghetto, where numerous Jewish people from the territory of the German Reich at the time were also deported. In the same year, the Wehrmacht organized mass shootings of the Jewish population in the area of today's city. After the Second World War, the ethnic structure of Riga changed - the Jewish, German and Polish populations disappeared and were replaced by Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian populations. The Latvian population lost its majority in the city and fell to almost a third by the time the Soviet Union collapsed. They now make up 47% of the total population.

Jūrmala is a resort town on the Baltic Sea in Latvia. The city is inhabited by 57,000 people and is located only 10 km from Riga, the capital of Latvia.

Pärnu (population in 2025: 40,934) is an Estonian county seat in the eastern part of the country. The port city was founded in 1241 by the Livonian Order. It was a member of the Hanseatic League. From 1560 to 1617, Pärnu belonged to Poland, with brief interruptions due to Swedish and Russian occupation. Legal recognition of the Swedish incorporation did not occur until 1660. In 1721, Pärnu was conquered by Russia. The Declaration of Independence of the Republic of Estonia was proclaimed in the city on February 23, 1918; the country regained its sovereignty after periods of Soviet (1939–41, 1944–1991) and German (1941–1944) occupation. Pärnu has been a major Baltic Sea resort since the 19th century.

The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic was founded in Kharkiv in 1919 as a puppet state of Soviet Russia. It initially existed on a small territory in competition with other Ukrainian states. In 1922, it was one of the founding members of the Soviet Union. In 1934, the capital of the Ukrainian SSR was moved to Kyiv. Shortly after the start of World War II in 1939, Soviet troops occupied Polish territories east of the Bug River and annexed the areas with a high proportion of Ukrainian population to the Ukrainian SSR.

The Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic was established in 1940 from the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Republic within the Ukrainian SSR. It ceased to exist when Moldova declared its independence on August 27, 1991. Its capital was Chișinău, and the official language was Moldavian, which is only a slight variation of Romanian.