In Search of Home

The Armenian Diaspora: between Belonging and Alienation
,
DOI:
Spendenkampagne der AGBU
Photo credit:
AGBU fundraising campaign. Bibliothèque Nubar de l'UGAB, Paris, Free access - no reuse
News from the Copernico portal
Our newsletter keeps you informed about new content in the portal and the news from the Copernico editorial team.
Subscribe to the newsletter now
Ever since the Armenian genocide in the Ottoman Empire there have been two Armenias: that of the widely scattered diaspora, which formed new memories and identities in exile, and that of those who, at different times, sought refuge in the Republic of Armenia. The story of these two extremes is one of longing to return, one the one hand, and being determined to stay, on the other, but perhaps common to both is the disparity between idealized expectations and harsh realities.
The story of the Armenian communities that have arisen in different countries since the Middle Ages as a result of political upheavals is inseparable from the story of the Armenian people as a whole. But it was only the genocide in the 
Ottoman Empire
tur. Osmanlı İmparatorluğu, deu. Osmanisches Reich, tur. Devlet-i Aliyye-i Osmâniyye, eng. Turkish Empire, deu. Ottomanisches Reich, deu. Türkisches Reich

The Ottoman Empire was the state of the Ottoman dynasty from about 1299 to 1922. The name derives from the founder of the dynasty, Osman I. At its peak, the empire encompassed Asia Minor and parts of Arabia, Egypt, and the entire Balkans. In addition, it brought many other countries and territories in Eastern Europe, East Asia, and North Africa under its control. Its last capital was Constantinople (now Istanbul). The successor state of the Ottoman Empire is the Republic of Turkey.

Osmanisches Reich in the Online Encyclopedia of the Culture and History of the Germans in Eastern Europe (German)
 that was carried out in the shadow of the First World War and the mass expulsions that followed that would, from that point on, be described as Spjurq Spjurq Derived from the verb spjur, meaning scattered or dispersed, the word spjurq is used to refer to all the places around the world inhabited by Amernians outside Armenia. .
This was a new expression which had not been used in the context of Armenian communities before. In the Near East, across Europe and as far away as North and South America, new communities arose whose notions of identity were based not so much on the 
Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic
deu. Armenische Sowjetrepublik, rus. Socialističeskaâ Sovetskaâ Respublika Armenii, rus. Социалистическая Советская Республика Армении, rus. Socialističeskaâ Sovetskaâ Respublika Armeniâ, rus. Социалистическая Советская Республика Армения, rus. Армянская ССР, hye. Հայկական Խորհրդային Սոցիալիստական Հանրապետություն, hye. Հայկական Սովետական Սոցիալիստական Ռեսպուբլիկա, deu. ArSSR, deu. Armenische Sozialistische Sowjetrepublik, hye. Հայկական Սովետական Սոցիալիստական Հանրապետություն, rus. Армянская Советская Социалистическая Республика, hye. Հայաստանի Սոցիալիստական Խորհրդային Հանրապետություն, hye. Սոցիալիստական Խորհրդային Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն, rus. Armânskaâ Sovetskaâ Socialističeskaâ Respublika, hye. Haykakan Sovetakan Soc̔ialistakan Hanrapetowt̔yown, hye. Haykakan Sovetakan Soc̔ialistakan Ṙespowblika, hye. Haykakan Xorhrdayin Soc̔ialistakan Hanrapetowt̔yown, hye. Soc̔ialistakan Xorhrdayin Hayastani Hanrapetowt̔yown, hye. Hayastani Soc̔ialistakan Xorhrdayin Hanrapetowt̔yown, eng. Armenian SSR, eng. ArSSR, eng. Socialist Soviet Republic of Armenia

Soviet Armenia followed in 1920 the short-lived independent Democratic Republic of Armenia. This was transformed by a coup supported by Soviet Russia into a socialist Soviet republic, which remained de jure independent until 1922. In 1922, Armenia, together with Azerbaijan and Georgia, formed the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (TSFSR) as equal member states, which was also completely controlled by Soviet Russia. Armenia's de facto dependence on Russia was legally sealed with the founding of the Soviet Union on December 30, 1922, in which the TSFSR was a founding member. The dissolution of the TSFSR in 1936 did not bring about any significant changes for Armenia. In 1990, the Armenian parliament declared the country's sovereignty. Formal independence followed directly after the collapse of the Soviet Union at the end of 1991.

 as on an idealized past. This led to tensions that would influence relations between the diaspora and Soviet Armenia going for-ward.

The Diaspora and Immigration: the 1920s and 1930s

The genocide against the Armenians and the associated mass deportations that took place during the First World War led to the expulsion of the Armenian community from 
Asia Minor
eng. Anatolia, deu. Kleinasien, deu. Anatolien, tur. Anadolu Yarımadası, tur. Küçük Asya

Asia Minor is a peninsula in Western Asia, located between the Black Sea in the north and the Mediterranean Sea in the south. However, it is usually associated with the entire Asian part of Turkey. The area is dominated by various mountain ranges that rise to over 5,000 meters above sea level. Fertile soils developed in the river valleys between the mountains, provided a basis for very early cultivation of the landscape. The name Anatolia, which is now preferred by Turkey, only became established for the whole of Asia Minor after 1923.

 and 
Cilicia
deu. Kilikien, tur. Kilikya

Cilicia is a cultural region in southeastern Anatolia, between the Taurus Mountains and the Mediterranean coast, that has been known since ancient times. Its current name is derived from the Akkadian name Ḫilakku, by which the western part of the later region was known. Modern Cilicia was formed in the 6th century BCE when a local dynasty ruled over the entire region. However, it soon fell under Persian rule. This was followed by periods of rule by various Greek and Roman empires. In the 7th century, Arab tribes controlled Cilicia. From 1080 onwards, Armenian princes expanded their power in the region. The later Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia lasted until 1398, when Cilicia was conquered by Muslim Turkic peoples. Since that time, Cilicia has shared its history with Turkey.

. Many survivors briefly returned after the war, but a new wave of emigration soon began, leading in particular to the countries of the Near East, Europe, the US and Latin America.
The first phase of the diaspora was marked by precarious living conditions and discrimination. In this situation, a return to Soviet Armenia became a political matter. More than 40,000 Armenians returned between 1921 and 19361, supported by organizations such as the Armenian General Benevolent Union (AGBU) Armenian General Benevolent Union (AGBU) The Armenian General Benevolent Union (AGBU) is a globally active non-profit organisation founded in Cairo in 1906. It works mainly within the Armenian diaspora, promoting the preservation of Armenian identity and cultural legacy through training programmes, cultural initiatives and humanitarian projects. The AGBU supports schools, cultural institutions and aid programs in numerous countries and is the largest Armenian non-profit organisation in the world. and the Hayastani Ognutian Komite (HOK) Hayastani Ognutian Komite (HOK) The Hayastani Ognutian Komitee (Support Committee for Armenians) was founded in September 1921 in Jerewan with the objective of helping the starving population and supporting the regeneration of the country, as well as developing close relations with Armenian diaspora communities around the world and organising the return of its members to their homeland. , founded in 1921. Both of them mobilized donations and organised housing as well as employment for returnees.
The AGBU, which was considered to be a non-political non-profit organisation, became an important partner of the Soviet Armenian authorities. It financed transport and infrastructure projects and enabled the repatriation of thousands of people. However, ideological tensions between the Soviet order and the diaspora that was anchored in the West and on which the nationalist party  Daschnakcutiun
Armenian Revolutionary Federation
also:
ARF
 The Armenian Revolutionary Federation was founded in Tbilisi in 1890 as a social democratic party. As part of the socialist movement, it set itself the goal of liberating Armenians from Ottoman and Russian rule. Today, the party is active both in Armenia and in the diaspora.  exerted a heavy influence, led in 1937 to the end of the collaboration and thus to a cessation of the repatriations.
Armenische Waisenkinder auf dem Weg über Jaffa nach Sowjetarmenien, Jerusalem 1925
Armenische Waisenkinder auf dem Weg über Jaffa nach Sowjetarmenien, Jerusalem 1925
$de=Armenische Waisenkinder auf dem Weg über Jaffa nach Sowjetarmenien, Jerusalem 1925. Bibliothèque Nubar de l'UGAB, Paris, Free access - no reuse
$de=Armenische Waisenkinder auf dem Weg über Jaffa nach Sowjetarmenien, Jerusalem 1925. Bibliothèque Nubar de l'UGAB, Paris, Free access - no reuse

At Home

Although most of the returnees came back to Soviet Armenia to escape hardship, the living and employment conditions they found there turned out to be little better. Social disadvantages and bureaucratic restrictions led to growing dissatisfaction among the immigrants and strengthened the potential for social tensions. At the same time, the Soviet authorities harbored growing suspicion towards the new arrivals, believing them to include “anti-Soviet elements” who were allegedly disseminating antisocial propaganda and spreading provocative rumors.
From the mid-1930s onwards, the lives of those who had been repatriated were affected by two opposing developments: on the one hand, a decision was made at KPdSU level in 1936 regarding “measures for accommodating immigrants in the Armenian SSR”, which stipulated comprehensive rules on the provision of accommodation, employment positions and social services for returnees and on the administration of donations provided by the Armenian diaspora.
At the same time, the Stalinist terror began, which claimed as its victims not only high-ranking functionaries and intellectuals but also ordinary citizens, among them many immigrants accused of being connected to “anti-Soviet Armenian parties and organizations” abroad. This wave of violence strengthened the already existing tension between the political reality of the Soviet order and the diaspora’s idealized vision of what the Armenian homeland should be.

Repatriation 1946–47

The second wave of immigration took place after the Second World War. People who had never lived in Soviet Armenia before were “repatriated”. Following a governmental decision by the USSR to allow the immigration of diaspora Armenians on 21 November 1945, immigration committees were established among the diaspora. One political episode increased their willingness to return: the  Catholicos of all Armenians
Catholicos of All Armenians
also:
Catholicos, Patriarch of Armenia, Patriarch of Etchmiadzin, Armenian Patriarch, Patriarch of Echmiadzin, Armenian Pope, Armenian Pontiff, Supreme Patriarch and Catholicos of All Armenians, His Holiness Supreme Patriarch and Catholicos of All Armenians
 The Catholicos of All Armenians is the title of the patriarch of the Armenian Apostolic Church, which dates back to the 4th century. The Catholicos is also considered the spiritual leader of the worldwide Armenian diaspora.  George VI asked Josef Stalin to reintegrate the regions of 
Kars
deu. Kars

The province of Kars (population 2024: 272,300; 10,193 km²) is located in northwestern Turkey, on the border with Armenia. From 1878 onwards, its current territory was annexed by Russia. Between 1918 and 1920, it belonged alternately to Russia, Turkey, and the short-lived states of Armenia, Georgia, and the Republic of Transcaucasia (also known as the Republic of Kars), until the Turkish province of Kars was finally established in 1920. This province changed its borders several times until, in 1992, two new provinces were separated from the Kars region: Ardahan and Iğdır. Due to frequent changes of state borders, the territory of the present-day province was inhabited by various Turkic peoples as well as Kurdish, Greek, Russian, and Armenian populations over the last centuries.

 and 
Ardahan
deu. Ardahan, hye. Ardahani maraz

Ardahan Province (population in 2024: 91,354, 4,934 km²) is located in the far northeast of Turkey, on the border with Georgia. Its capital is Ardahan. Its current territory was annexed by Russia in 1878, belonged to Georgia from 1918, and was occupied by the USSR from 1921. After being ceded to Turkey in 1922, the province of Ardahan was separated from the province of Kars in 1924, which was reversed two years later. In 1992, the province of Ardahan was re-established. Due to frequent changes of state borders, the territory of the present-day province was inhabited by various Turkic peoples as well as Kurdish, Greek, Russian, Georgian, and Armenian populations over the last centuries.

 into Armenia, which temporarily attracted international attention. Among the diaspora it also raised hopes that they would be able to recover the homeland that had been lost after the genocide.
Until its abrupt end in 1949, 89,637 people were repatriated through the program, mainly from the Near East and from Greece.2 This was organised by the Armenian Society for Cultural Relations (AOKS) Armenian Society for Cultural Relations (AOKS) The Armenian Society for Cultural Relations (AOKS, after 1958, the Armenian Society for Frienship and Cultural Relations Abroad) was founded in 1944 in Jerewan. It promoted the development of contacts and cultural cooperation between citizens of the Armenian SSR and the peoples of other countries. It organised events such as exhibitions and film showings on national holidays and the anniversaries of different countries. , the Armenian Apostolic Church and the AGBU, which together collection millions of dollars. The funds were intended primarily for the organisation of passages for those without financial means, but also for financing the construction of accommodation and infrastructure.
Spendenkampagne der AGBU
Spendenkampagne der AGBU
AGBU fundraising campaign. Bibliothèque Nubar de l'UGAB, Paris, Free access - no reuse
AGBU fundraising campaign. Bibliothèque Nubar de l'UGAB, Paris, Free access - no reuse

Arrival and Disenchantment

The repatriation campaign was portrayed by the Soviet press in a predictably exaggerated fashion. It reported how the returnees were pleasantly surprised to discover that high school lessons were taught in Armenian, that Armenians sang at the opera and that an Armenian-language literature existed. According to the article, all of these were facts that would finally dispel the imperialistic, liefilled fog that shrouded the reality of Soviet Armenia.3
But however great the enthusiasm of those returning home might have been, their arrival was accompanied by uncertainty and fear. Promises of a Soviet paradise were shattered by the precarious living conditions and the general indifference of the authorities that greeted them. Returnees frequently lost property en route due to damage, accidents while unloading and “unexplained” losses, and for many this represented a threat to their livelihood. One could not hope for compensation, and in an economy marked by a chronic shortage of consumer goods, lost items could not be replaced.4 Added to this were poor living conditions, food scarcity and social isolation. Even Western Armenian, the language spoken by most of the descendants of the victims of the genocide, was made into a key instrument for exclusion.5
The worst setback came with the post-war deportations. Any Armenians suspected of being disloyal on the grounds of their political views, party affiliations or origin, were deported. Of the estimated 80,000 who were deported in the late Stalin period, around 40,000 had previously been repatriated.6 In light of these circumstances many decided to leave the country following the death of Stalin, as soon as there was an opportunity to do so.
Armenische Repatriierte im Hafen von Alexandria 1947
Armenische Repatriierte im Hafen von Alexandria 1947
$de=Armenische Repatriierte im Hafen von Alexandria 1947. Bibliothèque Nubar de l'UGAB, Paris, Free access - no reuse
$de=Armenische Repatriierte im Hafen von Alexandria 1947. Bibliothèque Nubar de l'UGAB, Paris, Free access - no reuse

The diaspora and the DPs: the case of Stuttgart

In contrast to those diaspora Armenians who had been repatriated to Soviet Armenia following the Second World War, there was another group who did not wish to be repatriated under any circumstances: the Armenian DPs. As was the case with many other ethnic groups from the Soviet Union, after the end of the Second World War, refugee communities of Armenians grew up in various parts of Germany, and these were soon concentrated primarily in Stuttgart. The diaspora Armenians – especially those from the US – used all the resources at their disposal to enable the transfer of their homeless compatriots to safe countries.
In the final months of the war, many Armenians – prisoners of war and refugees from East and eastern Central Europe as well as the Soviet Union – managed to get to Vienna and Berlin and were then relocated to southern Germany due to a shortage of housing and work7, for example Rottweil, where there were already around 1,500 Armenian deportees by April 1945.8 After the city was captured by French troops, the risk of repatriation became acute, since the French authorities cooperated with the Soviets in this matter. For this reason, many fled to the US-Zone and moved to places like Esslingen where they established their own camp and could even secure the support of the  United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA)
United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration
also:
International Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, Relief and Rehabilitation Administration, UNRRA
 The United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) was an international organization founded in 1943 to provide humanitarian aid to victims of World War II. This included providing food and medicine, assisting in the reconstruction of the economy, and caring for displaced persons. After it ceased operations in 1947, the International Refugee Organization (IRO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) took over its remaining tasks. .

Five Years in the Funkerkaserne (“radio barracks”)

In October 1945, the inhabitants of the refugee camp were able to move to the Stuttgart Funkerkaserne. By 1946 the population of the barracks, which had been swiftly renovated and repaired, had grown to 2,000 Armenians and around 150 Ukrainians.9 The camp contained a school, a kindergarten, workshops, culture and sports clubs and even a theatre group. Soon Armenian newspapers such as Taragir (“The Displaced”) and Banber (“The Messenger“) were being produced that served to preserve a national identity that deliberately distinct from that of Soviet Armenia.
„Die in der Funkerkaserne erschienenen Zeitschriften „Banber“, Taragir und Alik (Die Welle).“
„Die in der Funkerkaserne erschienenen Zeitschriften „Banber“, Taragir und Alik (Die Welle).“
$de=„Die in der Funkerkaserne erschienenen Zeitschriften „Banber“, Taragir und Alik (Die Welle).“. Free access - no reuse
$de=„Die in der Funkerkaserne erschienenen Zeitschriften „Banber“, Taragir und Alik (Die Welle).“. Free access - no reuse
Within the camp, symbols of the First Republic of Armenia, such as the flag in the camp courtyard, were common, while portraits of leading functionaries of the Daschnakcutiun party decorated the walls.10 In contrast, Soviet Armenia was portrayed in somber colours: “Those who had ‘enjoyed’ the Soviet regime longed for this ‘paradise‘.“11 
Die Flagge der Ersten Armenischen Republik (rot, blau, orange) im Hof der Funkerkaserne.
Die Flagge der Ersten Armenischen Republik (rot, blau, orange) im Hof der Funkerkaserne.
$de=Die Flagge der Ersten Armenischen Republik (rot, blau, orange) im Hof der Funkerkaserne.. Carlson, John Roy: The Armenian Displaced Persons. In: Armenian. Affairs 1, 1 (1949-50). S. 25, Free access - no reuse
$de=Die Flagge der Ersten Armenischen Republik (rot, blau, orange) im Hof der Funkerkaserne.. Carlson, John Roy: The Armenian Displaced Persons. In: Armenian. Affairs 1, 1 (1949-50). S. 25, Free access - no reuse

Final Stop, the United States

Life in the camp was marred by fear of repatriation. The visit by the US philanthropist George Mardikian in 1946 brought hope: in his address to the camp inhabitants, he assured them that he had “knocked on every door and turned over every stone” in order to enable the resettlement of the Armenians, and that he would not rest until “the last Armenian had been settled in a safe place“.12
The American National Committee to Aid Homeless Armenians (ANCHA) The American National Committee to Aid Homeless Armenians (ANCHA) The American National Committee to Aid Homeless Armenians (ANCHA) was founded in 1945 in the US, on the initiative of George Mardikian among others, with the primary objective of helping Armenian refugees in Europe to resettle after the Second World War. The ANCHA successfully supported thousands of displaced Armenians resettle in the United States and played a significant rule in ensuring that they had housing and work and were able to begin new lives there. , which organised the transfer of DPs to safe countries, was created at his initiative. The camp inhabitants were prepared for the selection procedure held by the US Congress, received training and instruction in English.13
As a result of the efforts of the ANCHA, the US government agreed to accept the Armenian DPs, so that by October 1949, 617 people were able to leave the Funkerkaserne for the US. By autumn 1951, intercessions by ANCHA had made it possible for more than 3,000 Armenians to relocate to the US as well as Brazil, France, Venezuela, Iran, Lebanon and other countries.14

Conclusion

The immigration of the diaspora Armenians in the 1920s and 1930, the repatriations following the Second World War and the fate of the Armenian DPs as a counterpart to the return movement were to have a lasting effect on relations between the Armenian diaspora and Soviet Armenia. While the return in the 1920s of those who had been expelled in many cases meant salvation from precarious living conditions, the second wave of repatriations following World War II was characterized by the idealized and romanticized notions of a shared homeland.
By contrast, in the DP camp in Stuttgart it was a sense of disillusionment with the reality of Soviet Armenia that prevailed. Ideas of “home” in the diaspora were thus formed by differing historical and political contexts: through the legacy of the genocide, through the loss of a historical homeland, however defined, through memories of the short-lived First Republic of Armenian, but also through deep mistrust of Soviet rule in Armenia.
English translation: Gwen Clayton
Arpine Maniero
Arpine Maniero
Go to author biography

Footnotes
1.
Melkonyan, Eduard: Haikakan Beregorcakan Endhanur Miutian Patmutiun [Die Geschichte der Armenischen Allgemeinen Wohltätigen Vereinigung], Jerewan 2005, p. 203-217.
2.
Lehmann, Maike: A Different Kind of Brothers: Exclusion and Partial Integration: After Repatriation to a Soviet “Homeland”. Ab Imperio, 3/2012. p. 179.
3.
Pravda. 1946. 16 December, p. 2.
4.
Laycock, Jo: Belongings: People and Possessions in the Armenian Repatriations 1945-49. In: Exploration in Russian and Eurasian History, 18 (3), 511-537.
5.
See Lehmann, Maike: A Different Kind of Brothers: Exclusion and Partial Integration: After Repatriation to a Soviet “Homeland”. Ab Imperio, 3/2012.
6.
See Lehmann, Maike: A Different Kind of Brothers: Exclusion and Partial Integration: After Repatriation to a Soviet “Homeland”. Ab Imperio, 3/2012, p. 205.
7.
Gevorgian, Karo: Armenische Vertriebene in Deutschland während des Zweiten Weltkriegs und danach. In: Amenun Teregirke (Almanach für alle). p. 139-140.
8.
Gevorgian, Karo: Armenische Vertriebene in Deutschland während des Zweiten Weltkriegs und danach. In: Amenun Teregirke (Almanach für alle). p. 139-140.
9.
Gevorgian, Karo: Armenische Vertriebene in Deutschland während des Zweiten Weltkriegs und danach. In: Amenun Teregirke (Almanach für alle). p. 149.
10.
Carlson, John Roy: The Armenian Displaced Persons. In: Armenian. Affairs 1, 1 (1949-50). p. 24-25.
11.
Torlakian, Misak: Orerus het [Mit meinen Tagen]. Beirut 1963. p. 565.
12.
Torlakian, Misak: Orerus het [Mit meinen Tagen]. Beirut 1963. p. 11.
13.
Torlakian, Misak: Orerus het [Mit meinen Tagen]. Beirut 1963. p. 14.
14.
Ordukhanyan, Azat: Die armenischen Displaced Persons in Deutschland nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg. In: Drost-Abgarjan, Armenuhi: Armenologie in Deutschland. Münster 2005. p. 232.

Citation
Citation recommendation
Published on
Last modified
DOI
Download
License
Geographical context
Key words
Historical events
Follow us