Travelers exploring Eastern Europe
The railway as gamechanger in European rail travel
Chernyshevskoye (population in 2021: 891) is a village in the east of the Russian exclave of Kaliningrad, directly on the border with Lithuania. Until 1945, it was part of East Prussia and was known as Eydtkuhnen (Eydtkau from 1938 onward). After the completion of the railway line to Russia in 1860, the town experienced an economic boom as it served as a border station: a different track gauge was used on the other side of the border, so travelers had to change trains. In 1922, Eydtkuhnen was granted city rights. After the end of World War II, it was renamed Chernyshevskoye. Following its annexation by the Soviet Union, the town lost its function as a border town and the train station was dismantled. In 1947, the town was downgraded to a village. It was not until the 21st century that border traffic once again played a significant role.
Kaliningrad (Bevölkerungszahl 2024: 488.690) ist die einzige Großstadt in der russischen Exklave Oblast Kaliningrad, die ungefähr dem nördlichen Teil der preußischen Provinz Ostpreußen vor 1945 entspricht. Königsberg war nicht nur die Hauptstadt der Provinz und die nordöstlichste Großstadt Preußens, sondern ab 1724 auch Königliche Haupt- und Residenzstadt in Preußen. Heute ist Kaliningrad ein wichtiger Hafen- und Industriestandort sowie ein bedeutender Ort für Kultur und Wissenschaft.
Baltijsk (population in 2024: 27,318) is an important port in the western part of the Russian exclave of Kaliningrad (part of East Prussia until 1945). It is located on the natural channel between the Vistula Lagoon and the Baltic Sea, known as the Strait of Baltiysk. The city’s importance grew starting in the 19th century with industrialization and the expansion of transportation infrastructure. In 1865, the railroad line to Königsberg was completed. Since the construction of the Königsberg Sea Canal in the early 20th century, the port has been accessible also in winter. In 1946, Pillau was renamed Baltijsk.
The Russian Empire (or Empire of Russia) was a state that existed from 1721 to 1917 in Eastern Europe, Central Asia and North America. The country was the largest contiguous empire in modern history in the mid-19th century. It was dissolved after the February Revolution in 1917. The state was regarded as autocratically ruled and was inhabited by about 181 million people.
Saint Petersburg (population in 2024: 5,645,943, of which 4,732,198 live in the city proper) is a metropolis in northeastern Russia. It is the country’s second-largest city after Moscow. The city was founded in 1703 by Peter the Great at the mouth of the Neva River in the Baltic Sea. From 1712 to 1918, it was the capital of Russia. Alongside Moscow, St. Petersburg is Russia’s most important site for industry, education, culture, and trade, as well as one of its most important ports. From 1914 to 1924, the city was known as Petrograd, and from 1924 to 1991, as Leningrad.
During World War II, the city was besieged by the German Wehrmacht from September 8, 1941, to January 27, 1944—a total of 871 days. Over one million civilians died in the city, which had been systematically cut off from all supplies.
After the Prussian and Russian
Virbalis (population in 2025: 844) is a small town in the Marijampolė District in southwestern Lithuania. It lies directly on the border with the Russian exclave of Kaliningrad. The town was founded in the 16th century. Following the Third Partition of Poland-Lithuania in 1795, the town belonged to Prussia until 1807. After a brief period as part of the Duchy of Warsaw, it was incorporated into the Kingdom of Poland, which was under Russian control, in 1815. Virbalis has belonged to Lithuania again since 1918.
The Kingdom of Prussia existed from 1701 to 1918 and was reigned by the Hohenzollern dynasty. The country was an absolute monarchy from its founding until 1848 and a constitutional monarchy from 1848 until its dissolution. The capital of the Kingdom of Prussia was Berlin. The land was inhabited by about 40 million people. After the November Revolution of 1918 and the abdication of Wilhelm II, the Kingdom dissolved and formed the Free State of Prussia.
As long-distance travel became more commonplace, a completely new travel industry began to take off. Since the 1840s, Thomas Cook had been the uncontested pioneer of organized travel for British tourists, but entrepreneurs in Eastern and Central Europe were only a few years behind. In 1863 the postmaster Carl Stangen, originally from
Silesia (Polish: Śląsk, Czech: Slezsko) is a historical landscape, which today is mainly located in the extreme southwest of Poland, but in parts also on the territory of Germany and the Czech Republic. By far the most significant river is the Oder. To the south, Silesia is bordered mainly by the Sudeten and Beskid mountain ranges. Today, almost 8 million people live in Silesia. The largest cities in the region are Wrocław, Opole and Katowice. Before 1945, most of the region was part of Prussia for two hundred years, and before the Silesian Wars (from 1740) it was part of the Habsburg Empire for almost as many years. Silesia is classified into Upper and Lower Silesia.
The German Empire was a state in Central Europe that existed from 1871 to 1918. It comprised northern parts of the Holy Roman Empire, which had dissolved in 1806 and had been fragmented into numerous small states. The German Empire also possessed several colonies in Africa and the Pacific. The Empire came to an end following its defeat in World War I (1914–1918), the establishment of the Weimar Republic on November 9, 1918, and the abdication of Emperor Wilhelm II (which took effect formally on November 28, 1918).
Rising passenger numbers
The Kingdom of Prussia existed from 1701 to 1918 and was reigned by the Hohenzollern dynasty. The country was an absolute monarchy from its founding until 1848 and a constitutional monarchy from 1848 until its dissolution. The capital of the Kingdom of Prussia was Berlin. The land was inhabited by about 40 million people. After the November Revolution of 1918 and the abdication of Wilhelm II, the Kingdom dissolved and formed the Free State of Prussia.
This data relates to citizens of many different countries. The proportion of Russian citizens travelling abroad was relatively small compared to those from Western Europe. The target audience of one particular Russian travel guide, published in 1874, is clear from its foreword: “Most Russians leave the country at the start of spring to visit foreign spa resorts and, following their treatment, go on small trips to interesting destinations, without straying too far from Russia. They tend to remain within North and South Germany, although health resorts in Bohemia and the Tirol, particularly Karlsbad, have recently been full of Russians.”8 The author recommends a travel period of four weeks and a budget of 300 rubles to “familiarize oneself with Germany, including the Rhein, and spend two weeks in Paris.”9 If one compares these costs to the statistics for household incomes at the time, it suggests there were around 360,000 people from the Russian Empire (excluding
Vistula Land was the collective term in Russian nomenclature for the Polish territories incorporated into the Russian Empire after the Congress of Vienna. It was introduced after the gradual elimination of the autonomy of these territories known as the Kingdom of Poland, which culminated in the administrative reform of 1866 and the subordination of its newly created ten governorates directly to Russian officials and the abolition of autonomous state organs in 1867. This was primarily a reaction to the second, failed uprising (January Uprising) in 1863-1864 against Russian supremacy in the Kingdom of Poland, although the efforts to restrict autonomy and blur the memory of Polish statehood were older. The term Vistula Land was increasingly used from 1887 and was intended to convey a stronger connection to the Russian Empire, although the old name was not officially abolished.
The Grand Duchy of Finland was an autonomous part of the Russian Empire, which was conquered following the attack on Sweden (the Finnish War, 1808–1809).
The Russian tsar served as grand duke; until 1917, he was represented by a governor-general. The first capital was Turku (Swedish: Åbo). After the incorporation of so-called Old Finland—which had already been conquered by Russia from 1714 to 1743—into the Grand Duchy in the southeast, the capital was moved to Helsinki.
The exact degree of autonomy was not specified in the Grand Duchy’s constitution and was subject to political fluctuations within the empire. Swedish, and over time increasingly Finnish as well, served as official languages, although Finnish did not attain formal status until 1902. Although Russian was declared the language of the Finnish Parliament in 1900 as part of Russification measures, it did not gain acceptance, and the relevant regulations were withdrawn in 1910. In the aftermath of the February Revolution, Finland declared its independence on December 6, 1917, which was recognized by Russia in 1918.
The meaning of comfort
Berlin (population in 2025: 3,700,577) is the capital of the Federal Republic of Germany. It is also a federal state that forms an enclave within the federal state of Brandenburg. Its name is of Slavic origin. The policy of religious and social tolerance introduced in the late 17th century shaped the city, where a high proportion of the population soon consisted of immigrants. From 1701 onward, Berlin was the capital of Prussia, and from 1871 onward, the capital of the German Empire. In the 19th century, the greater Berlin area underwent rapid industrialization. Gradually, the suburbs, which were extending ever closer to the city limits, were incorporated into the city. In 1877, Berlin’s population surpassed one million. During the Nazi era (1933–1945), the Jewish population (approximately 160,000, or 4% of all Berliners) was initially subjected to severe repression and, beginning in 1938, increasingly deported to concentration camps; after the outbreak of World War II (1939–1945), to ghettos established by the Germans and to concentration and extermination camps in Eastern Europe. After the war ended, the heavily damaged city of Berlin was divided into four sectors by the victorious powers. Differences between the Western Allies on the one hand and the Soviet Union on the other led in 1948–49 to the Soviet blockade of West Berlin (the three Western zones), which could only be supplied by air. With the founding of the GDR, Berlin (only the Soviet zone) once again became the capital, while the Federal Republic of Germany had its seat of government in Bonn. After the GDR built the Wall around West Berlin in 1961, the two parts were permanently separated, which in particular prevented citizens of the GDR from leaving the country or visiting the West. West Berlin was de facto part of the Federal Republic of Germany, although some laws did not apply there—most notably compulsory military service and, in some cases, the visa requirement for citizens of Allied countries (including Poland and Czechoslovakia). After reunification in 1990, Berlin did not officially regain its status as the capital until 1994.
The International Sleeping-Car Company (Compagnie internationale des wagons-lits, CIWL) founded by Georges Nagelmackers in 1872 also introduced luxury overnight trips to Europe. Travelers appreciated the luxury, the “prompt punctuality” and the “absolute reliability” that “reduced the travel time to a minimum so that the longest distances came to see illusory– Berlin–Paris,
Vienna (population in 2025: 2,040,914) is the federal capital and the political, cultural, and economic center of Austria. More than one-fifth of the country’s population is concentrated within the city limits, and as much as one-third in the Greater Vienna area. Vienna is of particular historical significance as the capital and, by far, the most important royal seat of the former Habsburg Monarchy. Today, Vienna is home to the headquarters of several important international organizations.
A cosmopolitan community of travelers?
In their descriptions, the travel guides also sought to reveal a cultural and mental divide between the Russian Empire and the rest of Europe. In this way, they imposed their own version of the history and culture of a particular region on the traveler.15 Thus, travelling abroad became part of the nation building process that led to divisions between the “self” and the “other” that can be seen in other areas.16 It was not only those who engaged in foreign travel that were part of this process, but also the “armchair travelers” who stayed at home and read contemporary travel reports in magazines and books.
For example, the representation of “the Russian” in the Baedekers is not particularly flattering. It clearly fulfilled the expectations of the reading public and gives us a good impression of the stereotypes that were prevalent or widespread in the German and West European public sphere at the time. The 1914 edition contains the following observations on “the Russians:” “Physically they are blond, blue-eyed, and vigorous, with broad shoulders and bull necks, often somewhat clumsy and with a strong tendency to obesity. Their character has been influenced not only by a long history of subjugation to feudal despotism, but also by the gloomy forests, the unresponsive soil, and the rigorous climate, and especially by the enforced inactivity of the long winters.”
By conveying stereotypes like these, the travel guides served as mirrors of the society, in which, and for which the travel guides were written. They thus contributed to a development that Larry Wolff has described, in relation to the Age of Enlightenment, as a conceptual division between East and West Europe. Railway stations like the East Prussian building in Eydtkuhnen and its Russian counterpart in Wirballen thus came to form a symbolic border, a rite de passage, or rather a “passageway between two worlds”. However much contemporaries perceived these places to be the outermost peripheries of their own respective empires, they also had a central function in the development of an intellectual distinction between the “self” and the “other” – and between the modern European nations that were in the process of being created.
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